四川动物  2021, Vol. 40 Issue (4): 469-480

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卜荣平, 肖繁荣, 丁达尔, 史海涛
BU Rongping, XIAO Fanrong, DING Daer, SHI Haitao
龟鳖动物体色研究进展
A Review on the Study of Chelonian Coloration
四川动物, 2021, 40(4): 469-480
Sichuan Journal of Zoology, 2021, 40(4): 469-480
10.11984/j.issn.1000-7089.20210009

文章历史

收稿日期: 2021-01-09
接受日期: 2021-04-12
龟鳖动物体色研究进展
卜荣平 , 肖繁荣 *, 丁达尔 , 史海涛 *     
海南师范大学生命科学学院, 热带岛屿生态学教育部重点实验室, 海南省热带动植物生态学重点实验室, 海口 571158
摘要:体色是动物重要的形态特征,具有信息传递、体温调节和反捕食等功能。动物体色的研究近2个世纪,已在进化和适应方面取得了较大突破,开拓了行为生态学研究的新方向,极大地促进了应用心理学、计算机科学和军事等应用学科的发展。在目前已知的356种龟鳖动物中,体色多样,但由于其特殊的甲壳结构,龟鳖动物体色研究起步较晚,各种体色的生态适应意义尚不清楚。自20世纪50年代以来,在龟鳖动物体色的形成和调节、信息传递以及伪装策略等方面研究有所突破。这些研究表明,龟鳖动物在激素的调节下,色素发生变化导致体色改变;水生龟鳖动物受环境颜色影响较大,陆生龟鳖动物体色受环境颜色影响较小;部分物种的体色存在两性异形,雄龟通过向雌龟展示身上的色斑来求偶;背景匹配、混隐色和乔装3种伪装策略的研究证明龟鳖动物体色能够提供反捕食优势;深色的龟鳖动物在体温调节和种内竞争中都比浅色个体更有优势。目前,龟鳖动物图案的形成、腹甲颜色和特殊体色的功能适应等研究进展较慢,而且尚无相关的研究检验龟鳖动物的体色是否符合葛洛格定律,未来开展这些方面的研究可以促进理解龟鳖动物体色的生态适应和进化。
关键词龟鳖动物    伪装    求偶    信息传递    图案    
A Review on the Study of Chelonian Coloration
BU Rongping , XIAO Fanrong *, DING Daer , SHI Haitao *     
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Ecology of Tropical Islands, Key Laboratory of Tropical Animal and Plant Ecology of Hainan Province, College of Life Sciences, Hainan Normal University, Haikou 571158, China
Abstract: Coloration is an important morphological feature of animals, and is helpful for communication, thermoregulation and anti-predation. In the past two centuries, animal coloration study has made great breakthroughs in the field of evolution and adaptation, and opened new trends of behavioral ecological study and greatly promoted the development of applied psychology, computer science and military science. There are various colorations among the 356 known chelonian species. However, due to the special structure of their carapaces, study on chelonian colorations started late. Hence, the ecological adaptive significance of various colorations is still mysterious. Since the 1950s, breakthroughs have been made in studying the formation and regulation of animal coloration, communication and camouflage strategies. These studies showed that chelonian coloration is mainly influenced by the deposition of melanin due to hormonal regulation. Aquatic species were greatly affected by environmental color, while terrestrial species were less influenced. Chelonian coloration has various functions. For example, male individuals with dimorphism show their spots to females for courting. Three camouflage strategies including background matching, disruptive coloration and masquerade have been proved to provide anti-predation advantages. Dark-colored chelonians have advantages over light-colored individuals in both thermoregulation and intraspecific competition. Currently, the study progress on the formation of patterns, the functional adaptation of the color of plastron and the special chelonian coloration is relatively slow. Furthermore, there is no relevant study to test whether chelonian coloration conforms to the Gloger's rule. Further studies focus on these aspects will promote the understanding of the ecological adaptation and evolution of chelonian coloration.
Keywords: Chelonian    camouflage    courtship    communication    pattern    

体色是动物的主要形态特征之一,其形成是物种的内在因素(基因、遗传和母体效应等)和环境相互作用的结果(Robbins et al., 1993Roulin & Ducrest,2013)。动物的体色可以随温度、光线、栖息地特征、猎物和捕食者的视觉和行为等因素而改变(Roulin,2004)。长期的选择压力导致动物形成多种多样的体色。体色具有多种功能:伪装、惊吓、体温调节、威慑、性选择信号和作为视觉诱惑等(Ortolani,1999Ruxton et al., 2004Trullas et al., 2007Stevens & Merilaita,2009Stevens,2013White & Kemp,2015)。

研究体色可以揭示物种的进化适应,生存在不同基底颜色环境下的爬行动物种群常表现出丰富的体色变异,其体色变化的潜在机制具有多样性:爬行动物在不同环境下表现出不同的体色,且与环境颜色趋同(Rowe et al., 2014a, 2014bTong et al., 2019);爬行动物身上的部分色块可以作为性选择信号,导致物种内部和物种之间产生巨大的体色差异(Zucker,1989);体色还能影响爬行动物从环境吸收或反射热量的效率(Trullas et al., 2007Langkilde & Boronow,2012)。爬行动物的体色可以通过遗传在种群水平上传代进化,可以由环境诱导发生缓慢的改变,也可以在较短的时间内发生个体水平的改变(Price,2006)。

长期以来,龟鳖动物的体色因其特殊的背腹甲结构而被研究者忽视(Parker,1948),直到Woolley(1957)研究蛇颈龟Chelodina longicollis的体色变化才开启了对龟鳖动物体色的研究。目前已知的356种龟鳖动物中(Rhodin et al., 2017),体色多种多样(Bagnara & Matsumoto,2007)。许多龟鳖动物种内具有多态体色,不同生境中的个体颜色不同(Lovich et al., 1990McGaugh,2008),体色多态性的维持,可能是由于视觉捕食者的选择压力导致的局部生境匹配,有利于同种个体应对不同的生境和捕食者(Mayr,1963Rand,1967Endler,1978Woolbright & Stewart,2008)。独特的体色对于个体生存和种群发展都有极其重要的作用,许多龟鳖动物体色单一,也有许多龟鳖动物具有条纹和斑纹(史海涛等,2011)。目前,龟鳖动物的体色研究集中在体色形成机理和体色功能(求偶、伪装、体温调节和社会交往)等方面。

1 龟鳖动物体色形成机理

动物的体色可以分为生物色(Margareta,2002)和结构色(Ball,2012),前者是存在于动物皮肤、眼睛等部位不同的色素细胞中的极微小色素形成的体色,后者是因为动物体表细微的物理结构导致光波发生折射、衍射或干涉而产生的各种颜色。爬行动物皮肤斑块的颜色是生物色和结构色相互作用的结果(Saenko et al., 2013)。

体色形成的最常见机制是色素沉积,黑色素的密度和分布会影响动物的体色外貌,产生对伪装和交流都很重要的可见颜色变化(Aspengren et al., 2009)。黑色素有2种化学变体——真黑色素和褐黑素,真黑色素产生黑色或棕色,褐黑素产生淡黄色至红色(Thody et al., 1991)。生物体表现出的颜色和图案的多样性主要取决于体表各种色素特别是黑色素的含量和分布(Aspengren et al., 2009),色素选择性地吸收特定波长的光,同时允许其他波长的光被反射(Morehouse et al., 2007),颜色的变化可以通过改变色素数量和聚集或者含有色素的细胞器的分散或聚集而实现(Sköld et al., 2013)。而色素通过一系列复杂的化学变化,被色素沉着机制中涉及的不同的酶催化(Hou et al., 2000),这个过程由超过125种不同的基因调控(Bennett & Lamoreux,2003)。

龟鳖动物个体皮肤发生的颜色变化是由激素调节的色素沉着的缓慢过程所致(Bartley,1971Alibardi, 2005, 2013)。Woolley(1957)发现,无论注射多少剂量的肾上腺素,都不会引起蛇颈龟黑色素细胞的变化;而注射垂体后叶素后,黑色素细胞发生变化,因此,他认为龟鳖类的体色只依赖于激素调节。Bartley(1971)在对鳖属Trionyx物种进行研究时发现,注射垂体后叶素时,黑色素扩散,注射褪黑激素时,黑色素聚集,进一步证实了龟鳖类的体色调节为单一的激素调节。通过显微镜和光谱法在红耳龟Trachemys scripta elegans的皮肤中发现了由表皮黑色素细胞、黄色素细胞或脂小体产生的黑色素、类胡萝卜素和蝶呤(Rowe et al., 2006a, 2009, 2013Alibardi,2013Steffen et al., 2015),其中,黑色素被认为有助于形成可见色素沉着图案的暗灰色色调,而类胡萝卜素和蝶呤则形成黄色和橙色色调(Bagnara & Matsumoto,2007)。Steffen等(2015)研究发现,锦龟Chrysemys picta和红耳龟通过类胡萝卜素产生包括红色、橙色、黄色和紫外体色。由于类胡萝卜素不能自身合成,食物组成会影响类胡萝卜素的可获得性而影响黄色素细胞的形成,从而影响体色(Cooper & Greenberg,1992Ernst & Lovich,2009Steffen et al., 2019)。Cao等(2018)研究红耳龟的黑色素控制基因表达与颜色形成的关系发现,黑色素沉着和黑色素控制基因在背甲、眼睛、皮肤和肌肉4种组织间的表达有显著差异,但在同一组织中不同颜色类型间无显著差异。Cao等(2019)针对平胸龟Platysternon megacephalum幼体的背甲颜色变化的研究发现,背甲颜色变深可能不是由于背甲黑色素含量的变化,而是由于背甲角质层黑色素的聚集和叠加。

对淡水龟来说,水中溶解质会影响龟甲色素沉积(Lovich et al., 1990)。基质颜色诱导体色在龟鳖动物中普遍存在,研究基质诱导体色变化多样性有助于确定龟鳖动物是否存在颜色变化的一般机制。Woolley(1957)发现了侧颈亚目Pleurodira动物生理颜色变化的证据,底物颜色引起的黑化可能在龟鳖动物中广泛存在。水生龟鳖动物维持在深色或浅色基质时,基质颜色诱导黑色素发生变化,灵活的黑化机制促进龟的背甲颜色和环境颜色趋同(Rowe et al., 2006bMcGaugh,2008Rowe et al., 2009, 2014a, 2014b)。但基质颜色无法诱导陆生卡罗莱纳箱龟Terrapene carolina的体色发生变化(Rowe et al., 2014b)。这种基质诱导的黑化在比弗岛锦龟Chrysemys picta marginata幼龟中是可逆的,成体因在不同基质类型和颜色的栖息地之间迁移,这种不同基质诱导的黑化程度未知,但是当成年的比弗岛锦龟和红耳龟暴露于深色基质中时,色素分泌增加,当暴露于浅色基质中时,色素分泌减少(Rowe et al., 2009, 2014a)。虽然控制黑化程度的机制在物种间可能不同,但在一些龟鳖动物中,皮肤变黑可能是表型导致的(Alibardi,2013Rowe et al., 2013),也可能是永久性的,仅可能随着年龄的增长而逐渐增加,这一过程通常需要几个月的时间(Lovich et al., 1990Rowe et al., 2014a, 2014bCao et al., 2019)。例如,平胸龟在出生的第一年颜色多态,主要为黄褐色或橄榄绿,但随着年龄的增长,它的甲壳逐渐从黄褐色变成栗褐色,或从橄榄绿变成深棕色(Cao et al., 2019)。水生的龟鳖动物体色由黑色素控制基因控制黑色素沉积形成,同时受环境因素影响,水生龟鳖动物体色与环境颜色趋同,黑化程度也会随年龄的增长而逐渐增加。陆生龟鳖动物的体色受环境影响较小,或者需要更长的时间来诱导变化。

2 龟鳖动物体色的功能 2.1 求偶

许多动物体色表现明显的性二态,雄性为了求偶炫耀,其体色较雌性更鲜艳或具有色斑,这些颜色或色斑在求偶交配过程中是一种重要的视觉信号(Mansfield et al., 1998Rovero et al., 1999Liu et al., 2008)。许多鸟类在性选择压力下,会进化出更鲜艳的颜色以获得竞争配偶优势(Prager & Andersson,2009);爬行动物的色块作为性选择信号在物种内部和物种之间产生巨大的体色变异(Zucker,1989)。在龟鳖动物中,体色性二态特征虽不如鸟类明显,但也普遍存在。Baker和Gillingham(1983)对欧洲池龟Emydoidea blandingii的繁殖行为进行研究,认为雄性个体的摇晃头部行为可能是为了向雌性个体展示身体上的某些特殊标志或色斑;Liu等(2008)研究四眼斑水龟Sacalia quadriocellata繁殖行为时也得到类似的结论。许多物种头部具有条纹、斑点和眼斑等,如布氏拟龟Emydoidea blandingii的头部腹面颜色鲜艳,这些头部特征可能是其为适应在水中求偶炫耀形成的(Rowe et al., 2017)。红耳龟具有紫外光性二态,雌龟通过眼后红斑、下颌黄色条纹、前肢的黄色和红色斑纹来评估雄龟的身体状况,对这些斑纹的差异具有性选择偏好(Polo-Cavia et al., 2013汪继超等,2013Ibañez et al., 2014)。性选择促进锦龟头部的彩色特征通过紫外线反射加强,使其对同种异性个体更加明显(Cooper & Greenberg,1992)。Moll等(1981)对同域分布的印度潮龟Batagur baska和咸水龟Callagur borneoensis的色型随季节发生的变化进行了研究,发现在繁殖季节2种龟的头部和背甲的颜色都会发生明显变化,类似的结果在淡黄动胸龟Kinosternon flavescens(Lardie,1975)和欧洲池龟(Rovero et al., 1999)中也有发现。

2.2 伪装 2.2.1 背景匹配

动物伪装是一种可以减少被捕食者发现的概率的进化策略,许多动物体色都有伪装功能,以减少被视觉捕食者发现或识别的可能(Endler,1978Stevens & Merilaita,2009)。龟鳖动物行动缓慢,主要依靠背景匹配来降低被捕食风险,即动物与生境的颜色相似以减少视觉捕食者对猎物的检测(Stevens & Merilaita,2011Troscianko et al., 2016)。Mcgaugh(2008)研究了3种不同生境下角鳖Apalone spinifera的背甲颜色,发现从池塘到河流再到湖泊,其有逐渐变亮的趋势。幼年比弗岛锦龟在深色底栖环境中背甲深色,而在浅色底栖环境中背甲浅色,背甲颜色在同一个生境中趋于相同,从而促进与生境基质颜色的匹配(Rowe et al., 2006a, 2006b, 2009)。这些背甲颜色与选择生境基质颜色趋同的效应,可以提高龟背景匹配的伪装效果,降低被捕食的风险。但是这些研究只说明了不同环境下龟鳖动物的体色存在一定的差异,没有对同一生境下体色与生境颜色的匹配程度进行研究。Xiao等(2016)定量分析四眼斑水龟的体色和河流基质颜色,计算体色与背景颜色的匹配程度,结果表明,栖息在溪流中游个体的背甲与背景的颜色差、亮度差、色度差均显著低于栖息于上游和下游的个体,说明其可能通过选择与背甲颜色最匹配的微生境来提高伪装效果。

2.2.2 混隐色

伪装不仅受到体表颜色的影响,还受到斑点或条纹图案的影响,这些对比明显的图案在动物身体内部形成假的边缘,或者破坏动物的轮廓,阻碍了捕食者的识别(Thayer,1909Cott,1940Cuthill et al., 2005Stevens & Merilaita,2009),这种伪装策略被称为混隐色。许多龟背甲体色鲜艳,斑纹或辐射纹较多,如印度星龟Geochelone elegans、辐纹陆龟Astrochelys radiata、黄额闭壳龟Cuora galbinifrons和布氏闭壳龟C. bourreti等。陆地生境复杂,天敌较多,混隐色有利于伪装以躲避天敌,如黄额闭壳龟(Bu et al., 2020)。布氏拟龟Emydoidea blandingii和黄斑水龟Clemmys guttata的头部、背甲和四肢的条纹有利于其在水生植物中隐蔽(Ross & Lovich,1992)。这些物种背甲的条纹颜色与背景颜色形成强烈对比,但在其微生境中可以达到很好的伪装效果。

Bu等(2020)对黄额闭壳龟和平顶闭壳龟C. mouhotii的混隐色伪装进行研究发现,2种闭壳龟在草地、阔叶林、裸地和竹叶基质中均有一定的混隐色效果,这种效果是它们自身体色固有的特征,不依赖于基质。2种闭壳龟的混隐色伪装效果与基质选择相关。黄额闭壳龟的混隐色是2条黄色条纹分割背甲形成的表面破坏,而平顶闭壳龟背甲中部条纹与侧边条纹颜色均匀,但是亮度差异显著,造成了背甲的表面破坏,中部条纹在基质中突出显示,而侧边条纹匹配,捕食者容易在基质中将中部条纹检测出来,干扰了其对真实边缘的检测。无论是颜色的破坏还是结构的破坏,2种闭壳龟对基质的选择都给它们带来混隐色伪装优势。该研究首次对龟鳖动物的混隐色伪装进行了讨论,也首次在龟鳖动物中讨论了体形导致的混隐色伪装。

2.2.3 乔装

动物体色的伪装功能往往要与它们的体形共同起作用,动物往往会因为与其生境中物体(石头、枯枝和落叶等)的颜色和形状相似而使捕食者识别错误,这种伪装方式被称为乔装(Stevens & Merilaita,2009Skelhorn et al., 2010)。例如,泰坦竹节虫Acrophylla titan和刺蛾Selenia dentaria的幼虫与树枝的形状和颜色相似(陈树椿,1999Skelhorn et al., 2010),圆网蛛Cyclosa ginnaga会模仿鸟粪(Liu et al., 2014),陶工黄蜂Minixi suffusum会将自己的巢穴乔装成鸟粪以防御天敌(Auko et al., 2015),头足类Cephalopods动物甚至能够改变它们的身体形状和图案来模仿附近的物体(Huffard et al., 2005Barbosa et al., 2008Allen et al., 2009)。龟鳖动物的体形常被描述为与生境中的石块相似(Mlynarski,1966Bonnet et al., 2001Willemsen & Hailey,2003),如沙漠陆龟Gopherus agassizii会选择与自身体色和体型相似的石头生境,这样可以减少捕食者的捕食(Nafus et al., 2015)。

四眼斑水龟因为与溪流中的石块相似,在海南被称为石龟(史海涛等,2002)。Xiao等(2021)研究了四眼斑水龟背甲与水中石头的形状相似度,发现在四眼斑水龟密度最高的中游生境中,龟背甲与基质中石头的形状相似度显著高于分布密度低的溪流上游和下游。而且,通过人眼识别实验证明,在缺乏经验和有经验的人类“捕食者”面前,龟在中游地区被错误识别的概率最高。龟背甲与石头相似度增加会增强乔装效果(Xiao et al., 2021):该研究首次分析了龟鳖动物的乔装,也提出了定量分析动物与生境中物体的形状相似度的方法,可以用来评估动物乔装的效果。

2.3 体温调节

体温对外温动物的生理和行为表现有深远的影响(Huey & Kingsolver,1989Peterson,1993),外温动物采取各种手段来调节体温。在恒温动物中,皮毛或羽毛的颜色可以改变维持恒定体温的生理成本(Heppner,1970Hetem et al., 2009)。由于皮肤对太阳辐射的吸收,颜色会对生物体的热能平衡产生重要影响(Bartlett & Gates,1967)。黑色素在调节体温方面发挥着重要作用,深色的外壳有助于加热和保护组织免受紫外线的伤害(Porter & Norris,1969)。此外,在同样的太阳辐射下,深色个体的皮肤反射率较低,升温更快,比浅色个体在低温下更能保持最佳体温(Trullas et al., 2007)。因此,温度黑色素理论认为外温动物中肤色较深的个体可能比肤色较浅的在寒冷环境中的适合度更高(Trullas et al., 2007)。水生龟鳖动物的背甲颜色较深,有利于其在晒背行为中提高调节体温的效率,黑色的背甲有利于热量吸收,免受紫外线辐射的伤害(Rowland,2009Stevens & Merilaita,2009Bulté & Blouin-Demers,2010)。东非侧颈龟Pelusios subniger(Loveridge,1941)、恒河古鳖Aspideretes gangeticus(Minton,1966)、平胸龟(陶君等,2011)、红耳龟(马凯等,2015)等水生龟鳖动物都有明显的晒背行为。虽然黑色的背甲利于提高体温得到了普遍的接受,但是关于龟鳖动物体色与其体温调节的关系至今没有直接证据。

2.4 信息传递

黑皮质素系统可以产生行为模式之间的相关性,即所谓的行为综合症。黑皮质素与5种黑皮质素受体结合,每一种受体都与不同的生理和行为功能有关。黑皮质素系统与黑色素生成有关,这增加了基于黑色素的颜色与这些生理和行为功能共变的可能性(Ducrest et al., 2008Vercken & Clobert,2008)。一项对脊椎动物的经验文献的回顾显示,与颜色较浅的动物相比,颜色较深的真大洋动物通常更有攻击性,对各种压力来源也更有抵抗力(Ducrest et al., 2008)。因此,以黑色素为基础的颜色特征与社会支配地位具有相关性(Jawor & Breitwisch,2003)。行为与表型关联已在各种鱼类、鸟类、两栖动物和哺乳动物中得到证实,虽然黑色素调节攻击行为的特征显著(Cooper & Greenberg,1992),但在爬行动物中进行的研究很少(Auffenberg,1965Lardie,1983Kramer,1986Vercken & Clobert,2008)。爬行动物个体的颜色在社会地位竞争中发挥重要作用,颜色传递了关于个体表型的重要信息(Amundsen et al., 1997Sinervo et al., 2007)。在龟鳖动物中,红腿陆龟Chelonoidis carbonaria种群中占主导地位的雄性的头部比地位低的雄性有更多深的彩色斑点(黑色与红色、橙色、黄色或白色斑点),把地位低的斑点涂成黑色可以减少来自地位高的雄性个体攻击(Auffenberg,1965)。黑色皮肤的雄性红耳龟更具攻击性和争斗优势(Lardie,1983),同样的情况在橙腹伪龟Pseudemys nelsoni中也有发现,肤色较深的雄性会发起更具攻击性的对抗(Kramer,1986)。另外,体色较黑的赫尔曼陆龟Eurotestudo boettgeri个体在种内对抗中侵略性更强,对人类也更大胆(Mafli et al., 2011)。

3 存在的问题 3.1 龟鳖动物体表图案的形成机制研究缺乏

Turing(1952)提出的反应扩散模型(reaction-diffusion model)以及以该模型为基础建立的浓度梯度模型(concentration gradient model)(Wolpert, 1969, 1981)、诱导模型(induction model)(Otaki,2011)和图纹混合模型(pattern blending model)(Miyazawa et al., 2010)能够解释很多动物身体的斑块和条纹的形成机制。例如,Miyazawa等(2010)将白点鲑Salvelinus leucomaenis与山女鳟Oncorhynchus masou masou进行杂交,后代的性状是亲本体色的中间类型,符合图纹混合模型。Ohno和Otaki(2012)证明变色连鳍Synchiropus picturatus的斑纹与蝴蝶眼斑的形成机制相似,符合诱导模型。龟鳖动物中,杂交后代的图案的形成符合图纹混合模型,例如黄额闭壳龟和平顶闭壳龟的杂交后代的体色是亲本体色的中间类型(Shi et al., 2005)。但是,在龟鳖动物中没有开展图案的形成机制的相关研究。

3.2 龟鳖动物的体色适应研究缺乏

龟鳖动物的体色多样,陆生和水生、幼体和成体的体色也有很大差异,这些物种的体色都是在自然选择压力下,为了达到最大的繁殖成功率和减少被捕食风险的功能性适应。目前,动物体色量化的技术已经趋于成熟,数码摄影、光谱分析、色彩空间、边缘检测等分析技术也已经在动物体色量化中得以应用(Lovell et al., 2013汪继超等,2013Xiao et al., 2016)。关于龟鳖动物体色的研究发展缓慢,尽管对体色的形成和作用进行了大量的实验和理论研究,但体色的适应性机制尚未得到揭示。尽管龟鳖动物体色的求偶功能研究已经有了许多证据(Baker & Gillingham,1983Liu et al., 2008Rowe et al., 2017),但是对于它们如何通过视觉信息来捕捉这些颜色信号还没有相关研究。而且,龟鳖动物体色的种间信息传递没有得到关注。另外,虽然体色的反捕食适应得到了初步的研究,但都是以人为捕食者检测反捕食效果。捕食者感知颜色的方式是至少3个独立因素的函数:动物(或特定身体区域)的光谱反射率、光照环境和捕食者的视觉系统(Endler,1978Lythgoe,1979)。因此,忽略捕食者的视觉系统,研究动物真实的反捕食效果往往会造成偏差。

3.3 龟鳖动物腹甲颜色被忽视

长期以来,龟鳖动物体色的研究关注的是背甲、头部、四肢等,而腹甲颜色研究一直得不到重视,仅在物种的分类描述中有所涉及。陆生龟鳖动物的腹甲单一,因为其腹部几乎紧贴地面,不容易遭受攻击。大部分水生龟鳖动物的腹甲颜色较浅,因在水中活动时,腹甲会暴露于活动在深层的捕食者视野中,浅色的腹甲可能是为了达到反遮蔽伪装效果(Rowland,2009)。另外,相比陆生物种来说,水生物种的腹部在背景色为浅色时会出现一些斑纹或斑点,如眼斑水龟属Sacalia物种的腹甲密布斑点和斑纹,可能是应对水下捕食者压力的反捕食适应,但还没有相关的研究。

3.4 龟鳖动物的特殊体色功能不明

龟鳖动物中的许多物种都进化出比较特殊的体色,如地龟Geoemyda spengleri头部白色的斑纹。虽然有研究表明,四眼斑水龟和眼斑水龟Sacalia bealei头部的眼斑可作为性选择信号吸引异性(Liu et al., 2008汪继超等,2013),但是,这会增加捕食风险。无脊椎动物中已有许多研究,特别是在蝴蝶翅膀的眼斑研究中发现,这些眼斑有不同的功能,或恐吓捕食者,或转移捕食者的注意力,避免重要和脆弱的部位被攻击,也可能是为了增加捕食者视觉信号的混乱,为逃离增加时间(Kodandaramaiah,2011),但龟鳖动物特殊体色的功能没有得到关注。

3.5 尚需验证龟鳖动物体色是否符合葛洛格定律(Gloger's rule)

葛洛格定律认为,生活在潮湿而温暖地区的动物体色较深,干旱而寒冷地区的动物体色较浅(Rensch,1936)。研究温湿度对动物体色影响的过程,有助于了解动物在过去和未来适应气候变化的模式。Delhey(2019)对271个研究案例进行分析,结果表明葛洛格定律的测试通常在种内或种间进行,动物体色会随着湿度增加或温度增高而变暗。然而,这些研究主要集中在鸟类和哺乳动物,而在爬行动物中的研究仅仅包括蛇和蜥蜴。葛洛格定律认为各种各样的黑色素随皮肤的温度和湿度增加而增加(Delhey,2017)。龟鳖动物个体皮肤发生的颜色变化主要受激素调节(Alibardi, 2005, 2013),可能是验证葛洛格定律理想的类群,但是在龟鳖动物中还没有相关的研究。

4 结语

动物体色因其容易测量和变异大等特点,长期以来都是理解动物的进化和适应的重要内容。动物体色的研究近2个世纪,已在进化和适应方面取得了较大的突破。然而,龟鳖类的体色研究较少。目前的研究表明,龟鳖动物的体色主要由激素调节,水生龟鳖动物受环境颜色影响较大,陆生龟鳖动物体色受环境颜色影响较小。龟鳖动物体色的功能多样,包括求偶、反捕食伪装、体温调节和种内竞争等。未来的研究应该关注龟鳖动物的图案的形成、腹甲颜色和特殊体色的功能适应等,并且检验龟鳖动物的体色是否符合葛洛格定律,为理解龟鳖动物体色的生态适应和进化提供更多的研究证据。龟鳖动物体色的研究需要进一步完善相关理论和方法,多学科交叉融合,也需要在自然环境中检验动物体色的功能,为依赖自然环境伪装的濒危龟鳖动物的保护提供理论依据。

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