2. 中国海洋大学海洋环境与生态教育部重点实验室,山东 青岛 266100
水质基准是制定水质标准的基础,是进行环境质量评价、环境风险评估、环境损害鉴定和应急事故管理的重要参考依据。自上世纪60年代起,美国、欧盟、加拿大、荷兰等国家在水质基准方面已经开展了大量研究,建立了较为完善的淡水、海水水质基准技术体系,并颁布了一批典型污染物的水质基准值。中国水质基准研究起步较晚,直到本世纪初,我国的水质基准研究基本以零散的技术探讨为主。2017年环保部才颁布了符合我国水体区系和生态系统特征的《淡水水生生物水质基准制定技术指南》(HJ 831—2017)、《湖泊营养物基准制定技术指南》(HJ 838—2017)和《人体健康水质基准制定技术指南》(HJ 837—2017),旨在保护淡水生物、生态和人体健康。而对于海水水质基准,我国尚缺乏系统性研究。目前,仅有少数学者借鉴国外的方法理论,结合我国海洋生物毒理数据对我国海水水质基准的构建进行了探讨,并推导了一些营养盐[1]、重金属[2]、有机物[3]等典型污染物的海水水质基准值。目前,推导水质基准的主流方法是物种敏感度分布法(Species Sensitivity Distribution,SSD),推导的基准值往往以双值(长期水质基准和短期水质基准)表示,以期在污染物长期或短期暴露情况下对生物及其生态功能给予恰当的保护。
汞是一种全球性污染物,其天然来源主要有火山喷发、地质沉积、森林火灾等,人为来源主要有石化、金属冶炼、燃煤发电、氯碱、水泥、PVC、医疗等涉汞行业废水废气的排放。汞可以通过海气交换以及入海河流进入海洋中,其中大气干、湿沉降占据了海洋汞输入的70%以上[4]。汞在海洋中主要有四种存在形态:溶解态或颗粒态的Hg2+、溶解态Hg0、溶解态或颗粒态甲基汞(CH3Hg+)、溶解态二甲基汞((CH3)2Hg),其中Hg2+可以在硫酸盐还原菌等微生物的作用下转化为毒性更强的甲基汞[5]。在淡水中甲基汞光解速率很快,但Zhang等[6]的研究表明,作为海洋中甲基汞主要存在形式的氯化甲基汞则难以光解,因此汞在海洋中的危害更大。在我国,由于涉汞行业污染物的排放,每年会有大量的汞进入海洋。根据国家海洋局《中国海洋环境质量状况公报2016》,2016年我国主要入海河流中汞的排海量为39 t,是我国近岸海域中主要的重金属类污染物。研究表明,低浓度的汞即可对海洋生物的生长、发育、繁殖等产生不利影响,而且其残留时间长,容易通过食物链在生物体内富集,富集系数可高达4.6×105[7]。因此,中国、美国、欧盟等国家已将汞列为优先控制污染物。2013年,联合国环境规划署通过了由128个国家签署的《关于汞的水俣公约》,旨在控制和减少全球汞的排放。
目前,美国、加拿大等国家已经颁布了汞的淡水和海水基准值。但在中国仅有汞淡水基准的研究,对于汞海水基准的研究尚未见报道[8]。本研究以汞对我国海洋生物的毒性数据为基础,采用SSD法对海水中汞的水质基准进行探讨。在此基础上利用商值法对我国近海环境中的汞进行初步生态风险评价。研究结果可为我国海洋环境质量评价、生态风险评估及海水水质标准的修订提供参考。
1 材料与方法 1.1 毒性数据的搜集与筛选本文搜集和筛选的海洋生物毒性数据主要来源于中国知网(http://www.cnki.net/)、美国环保署ECOTOX毒性数据库(http://cfpub.epa.gov/ecotox/)和其他公开发表的相关文献。为保证推导出的水质基准值更符合我国海洋水体区系特征和生态系统特征,本文所选用的物种皆在我国沿海地区广泛分布。本文所选用的毒性数据来自于Hg2+的毒性试验,使用的汞化合物主要为氯化汞(HgCl2)、醋酸汞(Hg(CH2COOH)2)、硫酸汞(HgSO4)和硝酸汞(Hg(NO3)2)。
本文中毒性数据的筛选原则为:急性毒性数据采用暴露时间不大于96 h且毒性效应终点为死亡、生长、发育和繁殖的LC50或EC50(半数致死浓度或半数效应浓度);慢性毒性数据选择暴露时间≥14 d且毒性效应终点为生长、发育和繁殖的NOEC(无观察效应浓度)或LOEC(最低可观察效应浓度),若同一物种有多个毒性数据,则采用暴露时间最长者。若同一物种、毒性终点和暴露时间有多个毒理数据,则采用这些数据的几何平均值。同一物种同一毒性终点的毒理数据间若相差10倍以上,则剔除离群值。
1.2 SSD曲线的拟合以及海水水质基准的推导目前,用于拟合SSD曲线的模型众多(如Log-normal、Log-logistic、BurrⅢ等),但Wheer等[9]研究表明,没有任何一个模型适用于所有物质的毒性数据拟合,我国学者在研究不同化学物质的水质基准时采用的模型也不尽相同。本文利用由中国环境科学研究院推出的用于淡水水生生物水质基准的模型预测软件China-WQC V1.0对所搜集筛选的毒性数据进行处理。该软件内置Normal、Log-normal、Logistic、Log-logistic和Extreme value五种模型,用于拟合污染物毒性数据的概率分布。该软件以化学物质毒性浓度的对数值为X轴,累积概率为Y轴绘制SSD曲线,并计算出累积概率5%条件下的污染物危害浓度(Hazardous Concentration, HC5),输出检验模型拟合优度的参数:决定系数(R2)、均方根(RMSE)、残差平方和(SSE)、K-S检验值。其中R2越接近1,模型拟合优度越高;RMSE越接近0,模型拟合精确度越高;SSE越接近0,模型拟合的随机误差效应越低;当K-S检验P>0.05时,表明模型符合理论分布。最终,依据毒性数据的HC5值进行水质基准值的计算。短期水质基准(Short-term Water Quality Criteria, SWQC)和长期水质基准(Long-term Water Quality Criteria, LWQC)的计算公式分别为:
$ SWQC = H{C_{{\rm{5}}急性}}~~~/AF, $ | (1) |
$ LWQC = H{C_{{\rm{5慢性}}}}~~~/AF。$ | (2) |
式中AF为评价因子,通常取值范围为2~5。当有效数据量大于15并涵盖足够的营养级(至少涵盖水生植物、无脊椎动物、脊椎动物三个营养级)时,AF取2。由于慢性毒性实验方法、条件等的限制,在水质基准推导过程中常存在慢性毒性数据不足的情况,对此US EPA提出用急慢性比率法(Acute to Chronic Ratio, ACR)来推导长期基准,计算公式为:
$ LWQC = SWQC/FACR。$ | (3) |
式中FACR为最终急慢性比率(Final Acute to Chronic Ratio,FACR),是所有物种ACR的几何平均值。
1.3 生态风险评估本文采用商值法(Risk Quotient,RQ)对我国近海典型水体中汞的生态风险进行初步表征。急性风险商以环境暴露浓度的最大值与短期基准值的商表示,慢性风险商以环境暴露浓度的平均值与长期基准值的商表示。风险等级判断标准为:RQ<0.1,水体存在低生态风险;1≥RQ≥0.1,水体存在中等生态风险;RQ>1,水体存在高生态风险,风险程度随RQ值的增加而增加[3]。
2 结果与讨论 2.1 毒性数据本文搜集筛选的汞的急性毒性数据涵盖了藻类、环节、棘皮、脊索、节肢、腔肠、软体、星虫、螠虫等13门52科74种海水生物(见表 1)。其中主要为软体动物,占总物种数的31.1%;其次为节肢动物、脊椎动物、藻类等,分别占总物种数的23.0%、17.6%、14.9%。从单一物种敏感性来看,最敏感的为诸氏鲻虾虎鱼(Mugilogobius chulae),96 h LC50为1.30 μg·L-1,最不敏感的为斧文蛤(Meretrix lamarckii),96 h LC50为12 027 μg·L-1。
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表 1 汞对海水生物的急性毒性数据 Table 1 Acute toxicity of mercury to marine species |
本研究运用China-WQC V1.0对不同类别生物的毒性数据分别进行了拟合(由于部分门类生物毒性数据量较少无法进行拟合,故暂不讨论),根据最优模型拟合结果藻类、脊椎动物、软体动物和节肢动物的HC5分别为5.781、3.443、3.483和3.350 μg·L-1。对比可知,节肢动物对汞最为敏感,藻类最不敏感。这一方面可能是因为用作毒性实验的节肢动物多处于生命早期阶段,对毒物比较敏感,得出的LC50或EC50偏小;另一方面可能是因为节肢动物中尤其是浮游甲壳类所处营养级较低,相对于鱼类、贝类等高营养级生物,解毒机制不够完善。有研究表明,鱼类体内可能存在某种修复机制能够恢复Hg2+引起的组织损伤,因此对Hg2+具有较大的耐受性,但甲壳类未见类似报道[8]。
本文运用China-WQC V1.0对所搜集筛选的所有急性毒性数据进行处理,并构建SSD曲线。通过对比表 3中数据可知,用Normal模型拟合急性毒性数据得到的R2最大,均方根和残差平方和最小,K-S检验结果大于0.05,故Normal模型为最优拟合模型。图 1为应用Normal模型所构建的SSD曲线。由表 1、3可知,所有物种的急性HC5为3.318 9 μg·L-1,且急性毒性数据大于15个并涵盖了足够的营养级,故AF取2,则短期水质基准值为1.659 μg·L-1。由于符合要求的慢性毒性数据不足,本文采用US EPA推荐的ACR法进行长期水质基准的推导。由表 2知FACR为3.831,则长期水质基准值为0.433 μg·L-1。
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图 1 汞对海洋生物急性毒性的物种敏感度分布曲线 Fig. 1 The acute toxicity species sensitivity distribution curve of mercury to marine organisms |
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表 2 用于推导汞急慢性毒性比(ACR)的毒性数据 Table 2 All the toxicity data for deriving the acute to chronic ratio of mercury |
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表 3 汞急性毒性数据的不同分布模型拟合结果 Table 3 Fitting results of acute toxicity data of mercury by different distribution models |
本文基准值是以Hg2+的毒性数据为基础得出,但汞在水体中形态多样,毒性也存在差异,尤其是有机态的甲基汞毒性较强。如果水中汞的主要形态是甲基汞,则本基准值能否为生物提供足够的保护有待进一步探讨。故将本研究推导的基准值与已报道的不同形态汞的急、慢性毒性数据进行对比,以验证本基准的适用性。根据文献报道,当暴露于甲基汞时,美丽羽枝藻(Plumaria elegans)的18 h LC50为44 μg·L-1[73],岩虾(Palaemon elegans)96 h LC50为31 μg·L-1[74],草虾(Palaemonetes vulgaris)24 h LC50为125 μg·L-1[75],4-8细胞阶段的底鳉胚胎(Fundulus heteroclitus)48 h LC50为50 μg·L-1[76],这些急性毒性值皆高于短期基准值;草虾(Palaemonetes pugio)幼体21 d LOEC为12.5 μg·L-1[77],高于短期基准值。因此,本文推导的基准值对于以甲基汞为主的水体中的生物也能提供一定的保护。当暴露于Hg2+中时,草虾(Palaemonetes pugio)的21 d LOEC为10 μg·L-1[78];黑点青鳉(Oryzias melastigma)胚胎的14 d LOEC为24 μg·L-1[26],慢性毒性值皆高于长期基准值。故综上所述,本研究所得的基准值能够保护我国大部分海水生物免受突发性污染事件中汞的短期暴露以及低浓度长期暴露产生的不可接受的影响。
此外,Branco等[79]发现硒能够通过恢复生物体内被汞抑制的重要酶的活性,如硫氧还原蛋白酶和谷胱甘肽过氧化物酶等,从而降低汞的毒性;Denton等[45]研究显示,在相同温度下汞对墨吉对虾(Penaeus merguiensis)的毒性随温度的增加而增加;Chin等[49]研究表明,在相同温度下盐度的增加会使汞对丽文蛤(Meretrix lusoria)的毒性增强,这在一程度上表明汞的毒性会受到温度、盐度和硒含量等因素的影响。但是,目前尚缺乏足够的数据来建立这些因素和汞基准值之间的定量关系,故本研究暂未考虑其对汞基准值的影响。
如表 4所示,与美国汞基准(基于Hg2+)相比,本研究中的短期基准值略低于美国;慢性基准值明显低于美国。笔者认为产生这种差异的原因可能有以下三个方面:(1)在推导慢性基准值时,美国采用的也是ACR法,但缺乏鱼类数据;(2)中国和美国推导基准时所采用的物种不同,而这些物种由于生理构造、生活环境、地理分布等的不同对同一化学物质的敏感性存在一定差异;(3)美国推导基准时未采用藻类数据[80]。由本文搜集到的数据显示,一些藻类对汞也具有较高的敏感性,且藻类是海洋中重要的初级生产者,藻类数据的缺乏可能会对最终基准值产生一定影响。与加拿大的基准值相比,本研究的结果明显较高,这是因为加拿大采取的是评价因子法,以所有毒性数据中最敏感的一种藻类(Emiliania huxleyi)的LOAEL(Lowest Observed Adverse Effect Level)与安全系数10的商作为最终基准值,产生过保护的可能性较大[81]。本文所得海水基准值较张瑞卿等[8]推导的无机汞淡水基准值低,这在一定程度上表明,海洋生物对汞比淡水生物更为敏感,为充分保护海洋生物,制定相应的海水基准十分必要。此外,本文推导的慢性基准值低于我国渔业水质标准和四类海水水质标准,高于一、二、三类海水水质标准,可见借鉴国外水质标准所制定的海水水质标准,并不完全符合我国国情,存在过保护现象,需要进一步修订。
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表 4 不同国家汞水质基准及标准值 Table 4 The water quality criteria or standards of mercury in different countries |
本文从已公开发表的文献中搜集了27个中国沿海典型水体(河口、海湾、近海养殖区、码头等)中汞的环境暴露数据[84-105],站点分布覆盖了我国大部分近岸海域,可在一定程度上代表我国沿海水体中汞的整体分布情况。汞的浓度范围从低于检测限至4.33 μg·L-1,平均值为0.146 μg·L-1,其中以珠江口红树林湿地海水中的汞浓度最高为4.33 μg/L。如图 2所示,在研究区域内,水体的急性风险商的范围为0.010~2.61,平均值为0.171;慢性风险商的范围为0.032~5.35,平均值为0.337。存在急性高风险的水体占所有研究水体的3.70%,急性中度风险的水体占18.5%,急性低风险的水体占77.8%;存在慢性高风险的水体占3.70%,慢性中度风险的水体占55.6%,慢性低风险的水体占40.7%。在所有调查水体中,仅珠江口红树林湿地海水存在急、慢性高生态风险。据徐颂军等[90]调查研究,珠江口红树林保护区的周围存在餐饮业、以养殖生蚝和鱼虾为主的养殖业以及密集生活区等,它们所产生的废水和污水经过各种明渠暗渠排放到湿地内,这可能是导致红树林湿地海水汞污染严重,存在高生态风险的主要原因。其他水体皆处于不同程度的中度风险状态或低风险状态。处于中度风险状态的水体对生物具有潜在的危害,其生态风险需进一步关注。从保护海洋水生生物的角度出发,如果不发生泄漏事故或者有集中排放的情况,整体上我国近海汞的生态风险相对较低。
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图 2 中国近海水体汞的生态风险商值分布 Fig. 2 Risk quotient values of mercury in coastal waters of China |
(1) 在本研究所搜集的毒性数据范围内,中国海洋生物对汞的敏感性为:节肢动物>脊椎动物>软体动物>藻类。
(2) 本研究以物种敏感度分布法为基础,采用Normal、Log-normal、Logistic、Log-logistic和Extreme value五种模型对汞的急性毒性数据进行拟合,其中Normal模型拟合效果最佳,在此基础上得到我国汞的长期和短期海水水质基准值分别为0.433和1.659 μg·L-1。
(3) 本研究根据推导出的基准值,采用商值法对中国近海水环境中汞的生态风险进行了初步评估。结果显示,整体上中国近海环境中汞的生态风险相对较低。但个别海域,如珠江口红树林湿地,处于较高风险水平,应引起相关部门的重视。
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2. Key Laboratory of Marine Environmental Science and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China