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The Genus Solanum: An Ethnopharmacological, Phytochemical and Biological Properties Review

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Joseph Sakah Kaunda ^1,2,
Ying-Jun Zhang ^1,3Email author

Received date: 3 January 2019; Accepted: 27 February 2019; Published online: 12 March 2019

Abstract

Over the past 30 years, the genus Solanum has received considerable attention in chemical and biological studies.Solanum is the largest genus in the family Solanaceae, comprising of about 2000 species distributed in the subtropical and tropical regions of Africa, Australia, and parts of Asia, e.g., China, India and Japan.Many of them are economically significant species.Previous phytochemical investigations on Solanum species led to the identification of steroidal saponins, steroidal alkaloids, terpenes, flavonoids, lignans, sterols, phenolic comopunds, coumarins, amongst other compounds.Many species belonging to this genus present huge range of pharmacological activities such as cytotoxicity to different tumors as breast cancer (4T1 and EMT), colorectal cancer (HCT116, HT29, and SW480), and prostate cancer (DU145) cell lines.The biological activities have been attributed to a number of steroidal saponins, steroidal alkaloids and phenols.This review features 65 phytochemically studied species of Solanum between 1990 and 2018, fetched from SciFinder, Pubmed, ScienceDirect, Wikipedia and Baidu, using "Solanum" and the species'names as search terms ("all fields").

Keywords

Solanum Solanaceae Phytochemistry Steroidal saponins and alkaloids Ethnopharmacology

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Abbreviations

Table

ABTS	2, 2′-Azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulph nic acid)
CC50	Cytotoxic concentration of the extracts to cause death to 50% of host's viable cells
CDDP	cis-Diamminedichloroplatinum
DPPH	2, 2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
EC50	Half maximal effective concentration
GABA	Neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid
HBV	Hepatitis B Virus
HSV-1	Herpes simplex virus type 1
IC50	Minimum inhibition concentration for inhibiting 50% of the pathogen
LD50	Dose required to kill half the members of a tested population after test duration
MIC	Minimum inhibitory concentration
MTT	3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide
SAG	Superoxide anion generation

1 Introduction

The genus Solanum is considered to be one of the largest and most complex genera among the Angiosperms [1], and the most representative and largest genus of the family Solanaceae [1-4]. It is comprised of about 2000 species distributed across subtropical and tropical regions of Asia [3-9], tropical Africa [10-29], non-arid Africa [30-43], Americas [44-87], Australia [71-74, 81-84] and India [71]. The genus is well represented in Brazil with about 350 species widely distributed from north to south in diverse phytogeographic regions [70, 80]. In Brazil (Ceará, Bahia, Mato Grosso do Sul, Paraná and north-central coast of Santa Catarina State), many Solanum species, usually known as 'yubeba', the word that refers to the prickles found on the stems of several of the species, are widely used in traditional medicine [66, 80, 87]. In the northeast of Brazil, 80 Solanum species are distributed throughout the region and used in folk medicine. One of such species is S. capsicoides, commonly known as "Gogoia" [87]. In East Africa, several Solanum species such as S. arundo and S. incanum are known to be poisonous and are reportedly used to induce miscarriages [64].

Solanum genus is rich in economically significant species; the food crops include S. aethiopicum [20, 21], S. anguivi [30, 31] S. lycopersicum, S. melongena, S. muricatum, S. torvum and S. tuberosum [1]. Ornamental species include S. aviculare, S. capsicastrum, S. crispum, S. laciniatum, S. laxum, S. pseudocapsicum, S. rantonnetii, S. seaforthianum and S. wendlandii [1].

A series of pharmacological studies have been carried out to verify and validate the traditional medicinal applications of many plants in this genus. The studied pharmacological activities include analgesic, anthelminthic, antiallergic, anti-anemic, anti-asthmatic, antibacterial, anti- cancer, anti-convulsant, anti-depressant, anti-diabetic, anti-fungal, antihistaminic, antihyperten- sive, anti-inflammatory, anti-leishmanial, antimelanogenetic, anti-molluscicidal, anti-nociceptive, anti-psoriatic, antiplasmodial, antiprotozoa, anti-trypanosomal, antiurolithiatic, antiviral, cardio- vascular, diuretic, hepatoprotective, hypolipidemic, mosquito larvicidal, nephrotoxic, spasmolytic, schistosomicidal and vasorelaxant activities.

In the past, several reviews on Solanum genus have been documented [88-101], however, mostly with singular focus on particular species. The present review is multi faceted, and features 66 medicinal species of Solanum in their geographical distribution, traditional uses, and 670 isolated chemical constituents, including 134 steroidal saponins, 63 steroidal alkaloids, 13 pregnane glycosides, 128 terpenes, 75 flavonoids, 31 lignans, 31 other types of alkaloids, 66 sterols, 52 phenolic compounds, 20 coumarins and coumestans, 4 coumarinolignoids, 23 fatty acids and esters and 30 other compounds. Where applicable, the biological activities of compounds isolated from various species are noted.

2 Distribution and Ethnopharmacological Uses

Sixty-six species commonly used as important folk medicine, ornamental plants, or wild food sources were selected in this review, and their local names, distribution and ethnopharmacologi- cal uses were summarized in Table 1. Local names are given in different languages with which the inhabitants of a particular region use to identify a specific species. Each species' natural habitat and/or places of cultivation are mentioned. Traditional as well as modern day applications are presented.

Table 1

Distribution and ethnopharmalogical uses of Solanum species

No.	Species	Local names	Distribution	Uses
1	S. abutiloides	Dwarf tamarillo	Argentina, Bolivia [2, 3]	Ornamental, fruits edible, anti-fungal [2-4]
2	S. aculeastrum	Goat bitter/poison/gifa/bok-bitter -apple, thola, murulwa, umthuma, itunga, mtuma	Kenya, South Africa, Swaziland [10]	Toothache, ringworm [10], jigger wounds, gonorrhea, anti-molluscicidal [11, 12], anticancer [13-15], antifungal [16], antimicrobial [12, 17], anti-leishmanial [18]
3	S. aethiopicum	African scarlet/Ethiopian/Chinese scarlet/tomato-fruit eggplant, azoko, garden egg, gilo, golden/love apple, impwa, kumba, losuke, mock/bitter/ruffed tomato, nakasuga, nakati, ngogwe, osun, tokalu, african aubergine, aubergine amère, Ethiopian nightshade, gilo, granadillo, jilo, kumba, meloncillo de olor, meloncillo del campo, pocotillo, quillo, revienta caballo, röd aubergin, shum, silverleaf nightshade, tutía enano	China, India, Japan, Angola, Benin, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Burundi, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Central Africa, Chad, Comoros, Congo DR, Djibouti, Egypt, Equatorial Guinea, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gabon, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Liberia, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mauritania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Rwanda, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Sudan, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Australia, Brazil, Italy, France [20, 21]	Fruits/leaves eaten, ornamental [20, 21], anti-ulcer, anticancer [23-26], anti-inflammatory [27]
4	S. agrarium	Gogóia (Brazil)	Brazil, Guyana, Venezuela [44]	Mycosis, diarrhea, gonorrhea, prostatic, inflammation, abortion [44, 45]
5	S. americanum	American black/white/small flower/glossy nightshade, maria pretinha (Brazil), quilete (Guatemala), popolo (Hawaii)	Tropical Pacific, Indian Ocean, Hawaii, Indochina, Brazil, Madagascar, Africa	Ripe fruit makes jams, preservative, shoots eaten, antiviral, antimicrobial [46, 47], antidiabetic [48, 49], bladder spasm, joint pains, cooling, cough, gastric ulcer, protozoal infections, vermifuge [49], anticancer [47, 50-52], asthma [53]
6	S. amygdalifolium		Uruguay, Argentina, Brazil	Decoration [56]
7	S. anguivi	Forest bitterberry, African eggplant	Non-arid Africa: Nigeria, Ghana	Leaves/fruits consumed, coughs, dysuria, nasal ulcers, asthma, toothache, cardiac disorder, worm complaints, spinal chord and nervous disorder, fever, diabetes, artherosclerosis carminative, nasal ulcers, asthma, parturition, worm expeller, itching [30-32], hypolipidemic [33, 34], anaemia [31, 32, 35], Huntington's, Alzheimer, Parkinson, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [36], antioxidant [33, 37-39], hypotensive [38]
8	S. arboreum		Costa Rica, Colombia, Trinidad	Anti-leishmanial [60, 61], antimalarial [62]
9	S. arundo		Kenya	Abortion [64], hepatoprotective [65]
10	S. asperum		Brazil	Anti-molluscicidal [66], antifungal [67]
11	S. asterophorum	Jurubeba-de-fogo	Brazil	Liver dysfunctions, antidiarrheal [68], spasmolytic [69]
12	S. betaceum	English: tree tomato, South America: tamamoro and tomate de árbol, French: arbre à tomates, tomate de La Paz, tomate en arbre. Spanish: tamarillo, tomate de árbol, tomate Serrano	Ecuador, Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Rwanda, South Africa, India, Nepal China, United States, Chile, Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Bhutan [71-74]	Ripe fruit edible, preservative [71, 72], antioxidant [75]
13	S. buddleifolium	Unknown	Brazil [79]	Unknown
14	S. caavurana	Laranjinha do mato, 'jurubebarana' or 'jurubeba-branca'	Brazil (Ceará, Bahia, Mato Grosso do Sul, Paraná, Santa Catarina States), Paraguay, Argentina	Anemia, liver disorders, digestion [80]
15	S. capsicoides	Cockroach berry, polohauai'i (Polynesia), devil's apple	Brazil, Central America, Australia, Brooklyn, New York [81-84]	Ornamental [83], anti-inflammatory [85], anticancer [86], antihypertensive [87]
16	S. cathayanum		China	Anti-inflammatory, anti-bacterial [102], antitumor, anti-neurodegenerative [102-106]
17	S. cernuum	"Panaceia"	Brazil	Gastric ulcers, hepatic injuries, skin disorders, anti-tumor, depurative, diuretic, antihemorrhagic, antiblennorrhoea, cardiac disorders, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, urinary disorders, gastric cancer, gonorrhea [107-112]
18	S. chrysotrichum	"Sosa"	Mexico	Anti-mycotic, anti-inflammatory [113-120]
19	S. cornifolium		Latin America	Anti-mycotic [121]
20	S. crinitum	"jurubeba" and "fruto-de-lobo"	Brazil, Colombia	Anti-tumor [122, 123]
21	S. diphyllum		Mexico, Belize, Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Florida, Texas, Indonesia, Philippines, West Indies, China, Taiwan, Egypt [124-126]	Anti-tumor [126]
22	S. dulcamara	Bittersweet/bitter/European/deadly/blue climbing/woody nightshade, felonwort, violet-bloom, fellen, scarlet/snake berry, mortal, fever twig, staff vine	Northern Africa, North America, Europe, Asia	Skin diseases, cancers, anti-tumors, alterative, anodyne, depurative, mildly diuretic, emetic, expectorant, hepatic, mildly narcotic and purgative [127-131], skin abrasions, inflammation [132]
23	S. elaeagnifolium	Prairie berry, Silverleaf nightshade, silverleaf/Whitehorse/bull/horse nettle (English); silver-leaf bitter-apple, Satan's bush (South Africa); trompillo (Spanish); meloncillo del campo quillo-quillo, revienta caballo (Argentina); tomatillo (Chile); trompillo (Honduras)[540]	Mexico, USA, South America, Middle East, Southern Africa, North Africa, Taiwan, Penghu Islands, Brazil, India, Germany, Kenya [539, 540]	Contraceptive, corticosteroid drugs, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemic, hepatotonic, laxative, appetizer, cardiotonic, antispasmodic, antiepileptic, renal pain, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antimolluscicidal [133, 134]
24	S. erianthum	Aamourette marron (French); big eggplant, black/mullein nightshade, China flowerleaf, flannel bush, tropillo, turkey berry, wild tobacco, jia yan ye shu (Chinese)	Americas, Cuba, Dominican Republic, Haiti, Jamaica, Trinidad, South America	Leukorrhea, abortion, analgesic, vertigo, dysentery, fever, diarrhea, digestive problems, anti-inflammatory, leprosy, sexually-transmitted diseases, malaria, laxative, anti-diuretic, antihepatitis B, anti-tumor [135-139]
25	S. glabratum		Saudi Arabia, Yemen	Antibacteria, diuretic, scabies, syphilis, cough, hemorrhoids, anticancer [140-144]
26	S. glaucophyllum		Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay	Anticancer [145, 146]
27	S. guaraniticum	Jurubeba, false-jurubeba	Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina	Anemia, fevers, erysipela, hepatitis, ulcers, uterine tumors, tonic, digestive stimulant, fevers, antioxidants [147-149]
28	S. incanum	Thorn/bitter/sodom/poison/snake apple, mutongu (Kikuyu), mtunguja mwitu (Kiswahili), ochok (Luo)	Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Middle East, India, Australia, Madagascar, Mauritius, Saudi Arabia [150, 151]	Antibacterial [152, 153], antileishmanial [154], anticancer [155] conjunctivitis, inflammations [156]
29	S. indicum	Poison berry, Indian nightshade, African eggplant, bush tomato, ntunfulu, bhantaki, bari kateri, kateli, kshudra bhantaaki, mahati, mahotika, vartaki, vrihati, kataai kalaan, mullamkatti, papparamulli, barahantaa	India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, China, Philippine Islands, Africa [157-159]	Diaphoretic, diuretic, expectorant, stimulant, bronchites, itching, bodyaches, asthma, wounds, toothache, narcotic, cutaneous disorders, ringworm, mouthwash [157], anti-inflammatory, respiratory disorders, dropsy, heart diseases, chronic fever, colic, scorpion stings, difficult urination, worm infestation [158], alopecia areata, erectile failure, boost appetite, abdominal pain, distaste, deworming, colitis [159], antitumor [160-163], ascites, edema [164]
30	S. jabrense		Brazil [165-169]	Anticancer [168], molluscicidal [169]
31	S. khasianum		India	Anti-inflammatory, antihelmintic, Anticancer [170-172]
32	S. laciniatum	Kangaroo apple	Australia, Tasmania, Wales, New Zealand [173, 174]	Unknown
33	S. laxum	Potato vine, potato climber, jasmine nightshade,	Australia [175, 176], Uruguay, Argentina [177, 178]	Aphid repellant pesticide [177]
34	S. ligustrinum	Natri, Tomatillo [541, 542]	Chile	Antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, fever, anti-fungal [179]
35	S. lycocarpum	Wolf apple, lobeira, fruit-of-wolf, jurubebao (Brazil) fruta-do-lobbo (Portuguese) [543]	Brazil	Anti-inflammatory, antihepatotoxic, hypotensive, antihistamine [180], anticancer [181], antidiabetic [182], antischistosomicidal [183, 184], antileishmanicidal [185], anti-trypanosomal [186] antiprotozoa [187]
36	S. lycopersicum	Tomatillo (Mexico), tomate (Spanish), tomato (English)	Mexico, South & Central America, Asia, Africa [188]	Antimicrobial [189], antiasthma, antiatherosclerosis [190], antiplatelet [191], anticancer [190, 192]
37	S. lyratum	Nipplefruit (English),	China South America [193]	Anticancer [88, 89, 194-200], anti-inflammatory [201]
38	S. melongena	Aubergine, bringal, eggplant, terong, baigan, melongene	India, China, Thailand, Burma, Iran, Egypt, Turkey, East Asia [202, 203]	Antioxidant [90, 91, 204-206], anticancer [206-208], antidiabetic [209], anti-inflammatory, analgesic, sedative, hypnotic, blood circulation [210], antimelanogenesis [211]
39	S. muricatum	Melon pear, Pepino, Tree melon, sweet cucumber [544-547]	Equador, Colombia, Peru, Chile, Sri Lanka, New Zealand, Western Australia, Spain, Israel, Morocco, Kenya, Hawaii, California [212, 213]	Anti-inflammatory [214], antidiabetic [215], antitumor [212, 213]
40	S. nienkui		China (Hainan) [216-218]	Unknown
41	S. nigrum	Black nightshade, duscle, garden nightshade, Indian nightshade, garden huckleberry, hound's berry, petty morel, wonder berry, small-fruited black nightshade, or popolo, makoi (Hindi), manathakkali (Tamil)	Eurasia, Americas, Austrasia, South Africa [219-221]	Mouth ulcers, peptic ulcers, dysentery, skin disorders, ringworms, painful periods, cough [219-221], anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, diuretic, antipyretic, tuberculosis, cervical carcinoma [220-222], emollient, febrifuge, narcotic, purgative, sedative, analgesic, antispasmodic, vasodilator [222], antihyperlipidemic [131, 223], antimicrobial [224-226], antitumor [92-97, 227-230], anti-molluscicidal [231-233], antinociceptive, antipyretic [230, 234, 235], antiulcerogenic [235], antihistaminic, antiallergic [236, 237], hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antipyretic [98, 236, 237], CNS-depressant action [238]
42	S. nudum		Caribbean, Haiti, Cuba [239]	Antiplasmodial [240-249]
43	S. orbignianum		Brazil [250]	Unknown
44	S. paludosum		Brazil	Hypertension, vasorelaxant, antioxidant, antibiotics [251, 252]
45	S. paniculatum	Jurubeba, jubeba, juribeba, juripeba, jupela, juripeba, juuna, juvena, jurubebinha, jurubeba-branca, jurubeba-verdadeira	Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, southern, central, eastern and northern Brazil [253-255]	Anemia, anorexia, bile insufficiency, bladder problems, blood cleansing, bloating, boils, catarrh, congestion, contusions, constipation, convalescence, cystitis, debility, diabetes, digestive sluggishness, dyspepsia, edema, erysipelas, fever, flatulence, gallbladder inflammation, gastric disorders, hangover, headache, heartburn, hepatitis, hives, irritable bowel syndrome, itch, jaundice, liver problems, malaria, menstrual disorders, nausea, skin disorders, spleen inflammation, tumors, ulcers, water retention, wounds [253-255], antiherpes [256], antiulcers [257, 258], antifungal [259, 548], antibacterial [260]
46	S. pseudocapsicum	Jerusalem/winter cherry, Madeira,	South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Peru, Ecuador [261-263]	Hepatoprotective [264]
47	S. rostratum	Buffalobur/spiny nightshade, Colorado bur, Kansas/Mexican/Texas thistle	United States, northern and central Mexico [265-272]	Cardiovascular [273]
48	S. sarrachoides	Hairy/leafy-fruited nightshade	Columbia [274, 275]	Unknown
49	S. schimperianum		Somali, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Egypt, Yemen [276]	Antimicrobial [277, 278], antifungal [279]
50	S. septemlobum	Qing qi (Chinese)	China (Anhui, Gansu, Hebei, Henan, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Xinjiang, East Xizang, Zhejiang) [280, 281]	Antipyretic, antidotal [261], anticancer [261, 262]
51	S. sessiliflorum	Cocona	Peru, Colombia, Venezuela [282-284, 549], Bolivia, Mexico [268]	Antioxidant [550], antimicrobial, hypolipidemic [285]
52	S. sisymbriifolium	Vila-vila, sticky nighthade, red bufallor bur, fire and ice, litchi tomato, morelle de balbis	Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay [286-288]	Cardiovascular [289], antidiarrheal [290], hypotensive [291, 292], antimicrobial, antioxidative [293], anticonvulsant, CNS depressant [294], antimolluscicidal [295], analgesic [290, 296]
53	S. spirale		Southern China, India, Bangladesh, Thailand, Laos, Philippines, Australia [551]	Anaesthetic, diuretic and narcotic, antibacterial, anticancer [297-299]
54	S. surattense	Cockroach/yellow berry; thorn gourd/eggplant; belladonna; Night-shade, Febrifuge plant (English); Choti kateri/Bhatakataiyya, Rengani (Hindi);	China [300, 301], India [302]	Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, antitumor, antioxidant, anti-platelet aggregation [303-308], diuretic [308], antiplasmodial [309], anthelmintic, anti-convulsant, antihyperlipide-mic, antiurolithiatic, natriuretic, antiulcer, wound healing, antiasthmatic, hypoglycemic, hepatoprotective [99]
55	S. torvum	Turkey berry, prickly nightshade, devil's fig, shoo-shoo bush, wild/pea eggplant (English), aubergine sauvage épineuse, fausse aubergine (French), kantɔsi (Ghana), susumber (Jamaica), berenjena cimarrona (Spanish), kaisurisuri, kausoni, kauvotovotua, soni (Fijian), shui qie (Chinese), bhankatiya, katai (Hindi) [552]	Brazil, Colombia, Caribbean, Central America, Mexico, tropical Africa, Asia, Australia, Hawaii, Guam, American Samoa [310-312]	Antibacterial, anti-platelet aggregation [100, 313], pesticide [314], analgestic [314], anticancer [315-317], antifungal, antimicrobial [318-320], antiulcerogenic [321], antiviral [322], anticonvulsant [323], antihypertensive [324, 325, 553], antinephrotoxicity [326, 327], antioxidants [328-330], anti-inflammatory [331], antidepressant [332, 333], antiplasmodial [334], antidiabetic [335-337], antihelminthic [338]
56	S. tridynamum	Spanish: mala mujer, sacamanteca, ojo de liebre, berenjena Silvestre	Mexico [339, 340]	Antidiabetic [339-341]
57	S. trilobatum	Purple fruited pea eggplant, Thai nightshade	India, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Malaysia [342, 343]	Antifungal, antimitotic, asthma, vomiting, rheumatism, leprosy [342, 343], fever, antioxidant [344], antibacterial [345-347], antidiabetic [348], anticancer [349-355], mosquitocidal [356, 357], anti-inflamatory [358], antinociceptive [359], antihepatitis [360]
58	S. triste		Venezuela, Trinidad, Martinique, Dominica [361]	Unknown
59	S. tuberosum	Potato	Chile, Peru, Bolivia [101, 362, 363]	Antifungal, antimicrobial [364], antioxidants [365, 366], antileishmanial [367, 368], anticancer [369-372], antihypertensive [373]
60	S. umbelliferum	Bluewitch nightshade	California, Arizona [374-379]	Anticancer [380]
61	S. uporo	Cannibal's tomato	Fiji island, Tonga, Samoa, Tuamotus, Hawaii [381-384]	Unknown
62	S. validinervium		Venezuela [385]
63	S. vestissimum	Toronjo, tumo/coquina melon, lulo fruit	Colombia, Venezuela [386, 387]
64	S. villosum	Hairy nightshade, whooly nightshade, red nightshade	Europe, western Asia, northern Africa, North America, Australia, India	Antimolluscicidal [554], mosquito larvicidal [388, 389, 555]
65	S. violaceum	Ci tian qie (Chinese)	China, India, Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, Philippines	Anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anthelmintic [390-393]
66	S. xanthocarpum	Wild eggplant, Kantakari, yellow berried nightshade, huang shui qi (Chinese)	Nepal, Pakistan, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, China, Iran, Yemen, Thailand, Afghanistan, Saudi Arabia, India	Anthelmintic, anti-inflammatory, anodyne, digestive, carminative, appetizer, stomachic, depurative, sudorific, febrifuge, expectorant, laxative, diuretic, emmenagogue, aphrodisiac, leishmaniasis, immunomodulatory, anti-asthmatic [394-400], antimicrobial [226, 401-405], molluscicidal, hepatoprotective, antidiabetic [406-413] antioxidant, antinociceptive, nephroprotective, mosquitocidal, anti-psoriatic, diuretic, antiurolithiatic [414-429]

3 Chemical Constituents and Their Biological Properties

At least 670 compounds, including 134 steroidal saponins (1-134), 63 steroidal alkaloids (135-197), 13 pregnane glycosides (198-210), 128 terpenes (211-338), 72 flavonoids (339-413), 31 lignans (414-444), 31 other types of alkaloids (445-475), 66 sterols (476-541), 52 phenols (542-593), 20 coumarins and coumestans (594-613), 4 coumarinolignoids (614-617), 23 fatty acids and esters (618-640) and 30 other compounds (641-670) were reported from the genus Solanum. Most of them were investigated for various biological activities. The chemical constituents and their biological properties are presented in Table 2, together with their plant sources and parts, alongside the classification of structures.

Table 2

Phytochemistry, biological properties and classification of Solanum compounds

No.	Compounds	Plant sources	Parts	Biological properties	References
	Steroidal Saponins
1	Chlorogenone	S. torvum	Fruit		[430]
2	(5α, 25S)-Spirostan-3, 6-dione	S. torvum	Fruit		[430]
3	Solakhasoside	S. khasianum	Fruit		[431]
4	Foliumin	S. amygdalifolium	Aerial		[57]
5	Foliumin A	S. amygdalifolium	Aerial		[56]
6	Neotigogenin	S. paniculatum	Leaf	Cytotoxic	[257]
7	Diuranthoside A	S. cathayanum	Root		[432]
8	Torvoside N	S. torvum	Aerial	Anticancer	[316]
9	Atroposide E	S. dulcamara	Aerial		[433]
10	Degalactotigonin	S. dulcamara	Aerial		[433]
11	Trillin	S. paniculatum	Aerial		[258]
12	Diosgenin gentiobioside	S. paniculatum	Aerial		[258]
13	Diosgenone	S. nudum	Leaf	Hepatoprotective	[242, 247, 249]
14	(22R, 23S, 25R)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane 6-O-β-D-xylosyl-(1″"-3″')-O-[β-D-quinovosyl(1″'-2′)]-O-[α-L-rhamnosyl (1″-3′)] -O-β-D-quinovoside	S. paniculatum	Aerial		[258]
15	Nuatigenosido	S. sisymbriifolium	Root	Antihypertensive	[289, 291]
16	(3β, 5α, 14β, 25R)-3-Hydroxyspirost-8-en-11-one	S. villosum	Leaf		[434]
17	(3β, 5α, 6α, 25S)-3-Hydroxyspirostan-6-yl 6-deoxy-3-O-(6-deoxy-α-L-mannosyl) -β-D-glucoside	S. torvum	Whole		[435]
18	Torvoside Q	S. torvum	Aerial		[331, 436]
19	Dioscin	S. indicum	Fruit		[160]
		S. melongena	Fruit	Antimelanogenesis	[211]
		S. rostratum	Aerial		[437]
20	Prosapogenin A	S. indicum	Fruit		[160]
21	Diosgenin	S. lycopersicum	Aerial		[438]
		S. melongena	Aerial		[439]
		S. nigrum	Fruit		[440]
		S. torvum	Fruit		[430]
		S. tridynamum	Root		[341]
		S. tuberosum	Stem		[441]
		S. violaceum	Aerial		[391, 442]
22	Aspidistrin	S. cathayanum	Root		[432]
23	Torvoside M	S. torvum	Aerial	Anticancer	[316]
24	Protodioscin	S. abutiloides	Root		[7]
		S. incanum	Root		[156]
		S. indicum	Fruit		[160, 443]
		S. spirale	Fruit		[444]
25	Methylprotodioscin	S. incanum	Root		[155]
25	Methylprotodioscin	S. indicum	Fruit		[160]
26	Indioside D	S. incanum	Root		[156]
27	26-O-β-D-Glucosyl-22-methoxyfurost-5-ene-3β, 26-diol 3-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-2)-β-D-glucoside	S. indicum	Fruit		[160]
27		S. spirale	Fruit		[444]
28	(3β, 22α, 25R)-26-(β-D-Glucosyloxy)-22-hydroxyfurost-5-en-3-yl O-β-D-glucosyl-(1-2)-O-β-D-glucosyl-(1-4)-β-D-glucoside	S. cathayanum	Root		[432]
29	25R-Timosaponin H1	S. cathayanum	Root		[432]
30	Torvoside O	S. torvum	Leaf		[445]
31	(23S, 25R)-spirost-5-en-3, 23 diol 3-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-2)-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-1-4)β-D-glucoside	S. glabratum	Aerial		[141]
32	23-β-D-glucosyl (23S, 25R)spirost-5-en-3, 23 diol 3-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-1-2)O-α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-4)β-D-glucoside	S. glabratum	Aerial		[141]
33	(25R)spirost-5-en-3-ol 3-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-1-2)O-β-D-glucosyl-1-3)β-D-galactoside	S. glabratum	Aerial		[141]
34	Isonuatigenin-3-O-β-solatriose	S. sisymbriifolium	Root		[446]
35	Saponin SC-1	S. chrysotrichum	Leaf		[118]
36	Saponin SC-2	S. chrysotrichum	Leaf	Antifungal	[113-115, 117]
37	Saponin SC-3	S. chrysotrichum	Leaf	Antifungal	[114, 117]
38	Saponin SC-4	S. chrysotrichum	Leaf	Antifungal	[114, 117]
39	Saponin SC-5	S. chrysotrichum	Leaf	Antifungal	[114, 117]
40	Saponin SC-6	S. chrysotrichum	Leaf	Antifungal	[114, 117]
40	Saponin SC-6	S. torvum	Whole		[435]
41	Chlorogenin	S. chrysotrichum	Leaf		[117]
		S. tridynamum	Root		[341]
		S. torvum	Fruit		[430]
42	Chrysogenin	S. chrysotrichum	Leaf		[117]
43	Laxumin A	S. laxum	Aerial		[178]
44	Laxumin B	S. laxum	Aerial		[178]
45	Luciamin	S. laxum	Aerial		[177]
46	Lyconoside Ⅰa	S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[447]
47	Lyconoside Ⅰb	S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[447]
48	Lyconoside Ⅱ	S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[447]
49	Lyconoside Ⅲ	S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[447]
50	Lyconoside Ⅳ	S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[447]
51	26-O-(β-D-Glucosyl) nuatigenin-3-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-4)-β-D-glucoside	S. surattense	Aerial		[305]
52	Aculeatiside A	S. surattense	Aerial		[305]
53	(22R, 23S, 25R)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane 6-O-β-D-xylosyl-(1-3) -β-D-quinovoside	S. surattense	Aerial		[305]
54	(22R, 23S, 25S)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane 6-O-β-D-xylosyl-(1-3)-O-β-D-quinovoside	S. surattense	Aerial		[305]
55	(22R, 23R, 25S)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane 6-O-β-D-xylosyl-(1-3)-O-β-D-quinovoside	S. surattense	Aerial		[305]
56	Neochlorogenin 6-O-β-D-quinovoside	S. torvum	Aerial		[331, 448]
57	Neochlorogenin 6-O-β-D-xylosyl -(1-3)-β-D-quinovoside	S. torvum	Aerial	Anti-inflammatory	[331, 448]
58	Neochlorogenin 6-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-3)-β-D-quinovoside	S. torvum	Aerial		[448, 449]
59	Solagenin 6-O-β-D-quinovoside	S. torvum	Whole		[448-450]
60	Solagenin 6-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-3)-β-D-quinovoside	S. torvum	Whole		[448]
61	(25S)26-β-D-glucosyloxy)3-oxo-5α-furost-20(22)en-6α-yl-O-β-D-xyloside	S. torvum	Fruit		[451]
62	(25S)26-β-D-glucosyloxy)3-oxo-22α-methoxy-5α-furostan-6α-yl-O-β-D-xyloside	S. torvum	Fruit		[451]
63	(25S)26-β-D-glucosyloxy)3β-hydroxy-22α-methoxy-5α-furostan-6α-yl-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-1-3)β-D-glucoside	S. torvum	Fruit		[451]
64	Torvoside A	S. torvum	Aerial		[313, 449]
65	Torvoside B	S. torvum	Root		[449]
66	Torvoside E	S. torvum	Root		[449]
67	Torvoside F	S. torvum	Root		[449]
68	Torvoside H	S. torvum	Fruit		[313]
69	(25S)3β-hydroxy-5α-spirostan-6α-yl-O-β-D-xyloside	S. torvum	Fruit		[451]
70	(25S)3-oxo-5α-spirostan-6α-yl-O-β-D-xyloside	S. torvum	Fruit		[451]
71	(25S)3β-hydroxy-5α-spirostan-6α-yl-O-β-D-glucoside	S. torvum	Fruit		[451]
72	(25S)3β, 27-dihydroxy-5α-spirostan-6α-yl-O-β-D-glucoside.	S. torvum	Fruit		[451]
73	Neochlorogenin	S. tridynamum	Root		[451]
73	Neochlorogenin	S. torvum	Aerial		[341]
74	Tigogenin	S. americanum	Leaf		[54]
74	Tigogenin	S. torvum	Fruit		[430]
75	Yuccagenin	S. tridynamum	Root		[341]
76	Yamogenin	S. violaceum	Aerial		[391]
77	Yamogenone	S. violaceum	Aerial		[391]
78	Indioside L	S. violaceum	Aerial		[391]
79	Indioside M	S. violaceum	Aerial		[391]
80	Indioside N	S. violaceum	Aerial		[391]
81	Indioside O	S. violaceum	Aerial		[391]
82	Indioside G	S. violaceum	Whole		[392]
83	Indioside H	S. violaceum	Whole	Anticancer	[392]
84	Borassoside D	S. violaceum	Whole		[392]
85	Borassoside E	S. violaceum	Whole	Anticancer, anti-inflammatory	[392]
86	Indioside Ⅰ	S. violaceum	Whole	Anticancer, anti-inflammatory	[392]
87	Indioside J	S. violaceum	Whole		[392]
88	Indioside K	S. violaceum	Whole		[392]
89	Yamoscin	S. torvum	Aerial	Anti-inflammatory	[331]
89	Yamoscin	S. violaceum	Whole	Anticancer	[392]
90	Zingiberoside A1	S. violaceum	Whole		[392]
91	Solanolactoside A	S. torvum	Aerial		[316]
92	Solanolactoside B	S. torvum	Aerial		[316]
93	Solanolactoside C	S. torvum	Aerial		[436]
94	Solanolide	S. torvum	Aerial		[316]
95	Torvoside J	S. surattense	Aerial	Anticonvulsant	[305]
95	Torvoside J	S. torvum	Aerial		[323, 331, 452]
96	Torvoside K	S. surattense	Aerial	Anticonvulsant, antifungal	[305]
96	Torvoside K	S. torvum	Aerial		[323, 331, 452]
97	Torvoside L	S. surattense	Aerial	Anticonvulsant	[305]
		S. torvum	Aerial		[323, 331, 435, 452]
		S. paniculatum	Leaf		[260]
98	(22R, 23S, 25S)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane 6-O-β-D-xylosyl-(1-3)-O-β-D-quinovoside	S. torvum	Aerial		[323, 331]
99	(22R, 23S, 25R)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane 6-O-β-D-xylosyl-(1-3)-O-β-D-quinovoside	S. torvum	Aerial	Anti-inflammatory	[331]
100	(22R, 23R, 25S)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane 6-O-β-D-xylosyl-(1-3)-O-β-D-quinovoside	S. torvum	Aerial	Anti-inflammatory	[331]
101	Gekogenin	S. torvum	Fruit		[430]
102	Sisalagenin	S. torvum	Fruit		[430]
103	Δ²⁵⁽²⁷⁾tigogenin-3-O-β-D-glucoside	S. paniculatum	Leaf	Antiviral	[257]
104	Soladulcosides A	S. dulcamara	Aerial		[129]
105	Soladulcosides B	S. dulcamara	Aerial		[129]
106	Abutiloside L	S. abutiloides	Root		[4]
107	Abutiloside M	S. abutiloides	Root		[4]
108	Abutiloside N	S. abutiloides	Root		[4]
109	Abutiloside O	S. abutiloides	Root		[4]
110	Torvoside C	S. torvum	Root		[449]
111	Torvoside D	S. surattense	Aerial		[305]
111	Torvoside D	S. torvum	Root		[331, 449]
112	Torvoside G	S. torvum	Fruit, Root		[313, 449]
113	Torvoside P	S. torvum	Leaf		[445]
114	Anguivioside A	S. anguivi	Fruit		[41]
115	Anguivioside B	S. anguivi	Fruit		[41]
116	Anguivioside C	S. anguivi	Fruit		[41]
117	Anguivioside Ⅰ	S. indicum	Fruit		[443]
118	Anguivioside Ⅲ	S. anguivi	Fruit		[43]
118	Anguivioside Ⅲ	S. indicum	Fruit		[443]
119	Anguivioside XI	S. anguivi	Fruit		[43]
120	Anguivioside XV	S. anguivi	Fruit		[43]
121	Anguivioside XVI	S. anguivi	Fruit		[43]
122	Inunigroside A	S. nigrum	Fruit		[453]
123	25(S)-26-O-β-D-glucosyl-5α-furost-22(20)-en-3β, 6α, 26-triol 6-O-[α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-3)-O-β-D-quinovoside]	S. torvum	Fruit	Anticancer	[317]
124	25(S)-26-O-β-D-glucosyl-5α-furost-22(20)-en-3-one-6α, 26-diol 6-O-[α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-3)-O-β-D-quinovoside]	S. torvum	Fruit	Anticancer	[317]
125	25(S)-26-O-β-D-glucosyl-5α-furost-22(20)-en-3β, 6α, 26-triol 6-O-β-D-quinovoside	S. torvum	Fruit	Anticancer	[317]
126	Paniculonin B	S. torvum	Leaf		[323]
127	Smilaxchinoside A	S. rostratum	Aerial		[437]
128	6-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-(1″-3′)-β-D-quinovosyl-(22S, 23R, 25S)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane	S. paniculatum	Leaf		[260]
129	6-O-β-D-Xylosyl-(1″-3′)-β-D-quinovosyl-(23R, 25S)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane	S. paniculatum	Leaf		[260]
130	6-O-β-D-Xylosyl-(1″-3′)-β-D-quinovosyl-(22S, 23R, 25R)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane	S. paniculatum	Leaf		[260]
131	3-O-α-L-Rhamnosyl-(1″-3′)-β-D-quinovosyl-(22S, 23S, 25R)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane	S. paniculatum	Leaf		[260]
132	3-O-β-D-Xylosyl-(1″-3′)-β-D-quinovosyl-(22S, 23S, 25R)-3β, 6α, 23-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane	S. paniculatum	Leaf		[260]
133	6-O-α-L-Rhamnosyl-(1″-3′)-β-D-quinovosyl-(22S, 25S)-1β, 3β, 6α-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane	S. paniculatum	Leaf		[260]
134	6-O-β-D-Xylosyl-(1″-3′)-β-D-quinovosyl-(22S, 25S)-3β, 4β, 6α-trihydroxy-5α-spirostane	S. paniculatum	Leaf		[260]
	Steroidal alkaloids
135	Demissine	S. tuberosum	Stem		[101]
136	Solasodiene	S. torvum	Fruit		[430]
137	Solanoside A	S. surattense	Whole		[454]
138	Solanoside B	S. surattense	Whole		[454]
139	Solamargine	S. abutiloides	Root		[7]
		S. aculeastrum	Fruit		[19]
		S. asperum	Root		[66, 67]
		S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
		S. americanum	Fruit		[55]
		S. anguivi	Root		[42]
		S. crinitum	Fruit		[122]
		S. erianthum	Leaf		[137, 455]
		S. incanum	Root		[156]
		S. khasianum	Fruit		[456]
		S. lycocarpum	Fruit	Leishmanicidal, antidiabetic, schistosomicidal, trypanocidal	[182, 183, 185, 186, 447, 457]
		S. melongena	Fruit, Root		[206, 439]
		S. nigrum	Whole		[228]
		S. paludosum	Fruit		[253]
		S. sarrachoides	Leaf	Anticancer	[458]
		S. surattense	Aerial		[305]
		S. uporo	Root	Antibacterial, molluscicidal	[384]
		S. xanthocarpum	Fruit		[403, 406]
140	γ-Solamargine	S. nigrum	Whole		[228]
140	γ-Solamargine	S. umbelliferum	Whole		[380]
141	Khasianine	S. khasianum	Fruit		[456]
		S. nigrum	Whole		[228]
		S. surattense	Aerial	Anticancer	[305]
		S. xanthocarpum	Fruit	Antibacterial, molluscicidal	[403, 406, 407]
142	Solasonine	S. americanum	Leaf		[54]
		S. amygdalifolium	Aerial		[56]
		S. asperum	Fruit		[66, 67]
		S. crinitum	Aerial		[122, 123, 459]
		S. erianthum	Leaf		[137, 455]
		S. khasianum	Fruit		[456]
		S. lycocarpum	Fruit	Leishmanicidal, antidiabetic, schistosomicidal	[182, 183, 185, 447, 457]
		S. melongena	Fruit, Root		[206, 439]
		S. sarrachoides	Leaf		[458]
		S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[460]
		S. sisymbriifolium	Fruit		[294]
143	β1-Solasonine	S. nigrum	Whole		[228]
144	12-Hydroxysolasonine	S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[182, 447]
145	Solasodine	S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[182, 447]
		S. americanum	Leaf		[54]
		S. aculeastrum	Fruit	Anticancer	[13]
		S. crinitum	Aerial		[123]
		S. khasianum	Fruit		[172, 456]
		S. laciniatum	Aerial		[461, 462]
		S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[185]
		S. melongena	Fruit		[206]
		S. nigrum	Whole		[163, 440]
		S. sisymbriifolium	Fruit		[294]
		S. surattense	Whole	CNS depressant	[303]
		S. torvum	Whole	Anti-inflammatory	[463]
		S. trilobatum	Whole		[358]
		S. villosum	Whole		[442]
		S. xanthocarpum	Fruit	Antibacterial	[403, 429]
		S. umbelliferum	Whole		[380]
146	N-Hydroxysolasodine	S. paludosum	Root		[464]
147	O-Acetylsolasodine	S. umbelliferum	Whole		[380]
148	Putuline	S. paludosum	Root		[464]
149	Anguivine	S. anguivi	Root		[42]
149	Anguivine	S. uporo	Root		[384]
150	Isoanguivine	S. uporo	Root		[384]
151	Arudonine	S. arundo	Root		[64]
152	Solanandaine	S. asperum	Fruit		[66]
153	Robeneoside A	S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[182, 447]
154	Robeneoside B	S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[182, 447]
155	Lobofrutoside	S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[447]
156	Solanigroside P	S. nigrum	Whole		[228]
157	(22R, 25R)-16β-H-22α-N-Spirosol-3β-ol-5-ene 3-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-2)-[α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-4)]-β-D-glucoside	S. surattense	Aerial	Anticancer	[305]
158	Solaculine A	S. aculeastrum	Root		[19]
159	β-Solamarine	S. aculeastrum	Root		[19]
		S. elaeagnifolium	Seed		[465]
		S. incanum	Root		[155]
160	Tomatidenol	S. aculeastrum	Root		[19]
		S. palodusum	Root		[464]
		S. lycopersicum	Fruit		[192]
		S. surattense	Aerial		[454]
161	Tomatidine 3-O-β-D-glucoside	S. arboreum	Aerial		[63]
162	Dehydrotomatine	S. lycopersicum	Fruit		[192]
163	Tomatidine 3-O-O-β-D-xylosyl-1-6)β-D-glucoside]	S. arboreum	Aerial		[63]
164	Solaverol A	S. uporo	Root		[384]
165	(23S)-23-hydroxyanguivine	S. uporo	Root		[384]
166	(23S)-23-hydroxyisoanguivine	S. uporo	Root		[384]
167	Tomatidine	S. lycopersicum	Fruit		[192]
167	Tomatidine	S. aculeastrum	Fruit	Anticancer	[13]
168	Tomatine	S. lycopersicum	Fruit		[192, 466]
		S. cathayanum	Whole	Neurotoxicity	[106]
		S. sarrachoides	Leaf		[276]
169	22-Imido-3-[4′-(6″-deoxy-α-L-mannoside)-β-D-glucoside]-5-dehydro spirostane	S. xanthocarpum	Fruit		[407]
170	Leptinidine	S. paludosum	Root		[253]
170	Leptinidine	S. orbignianum	Aerial		[250]
171	Leptinine Ⅰ	S. orbignianum	Aerial		[250]
172	Leptinine Ⅱ	S. orbignianum	Aerial		[250]
173	Solanine	S. dulcamara	Stem		[467]
		S. indicum	Whole		[162]
		S. tuberosum	Stem		[441]
		S. villosum	Fruit		[468]
174	α-Chaconine	S. tuberosum	Stem		[372, 441]
175	β-D-Glucoside, (3β, 23β)23-hydroxysolanid-5-en-3-yl	S. orbignianum	Aerial		[250]
176	Solanidine	S. villosum	Fruit		[469]
177	Solanopubamine	S. schimperianum	Aerial	Antifungal	[279]
178	Jurubine	S. paniculatum	Fruit		[273, 548]
179	Etioline	S. spirale	Root		[470]
180	Deacetylveralosine	S. spirale	Root		[470]
180	Deacetylveralosine	S. diphyllum	Root		[126]
181	Solaspiralidine	S. spirale	Root		[470]
182	Soladunalinidine	S. arboreum	Aerial		[59]
183	3-epi-Soladunalinidine	S. arboreum	Aerial		[59]
184	Caavuranamide	S. caavurana	Fruit	Antibacterial	[80]
185	4-Tomatiden-3-one	S. caavurana	Fruit		[80]
186	5-Tomatidan-3-one	S. caavurana	Fruit		[80]
187	(22S, 25S)-3β-aminospirosol-5-ene	S. arboreum	Aerial		[59]
188	(22R, 25R)3β-amino-5α-spirosolane	S. triste	Aerial		[362, 471]
189	(22R, 25R)3β-amino-5-spirosolene	S. triste	Aerial		[362, 471]
190	Isojuripidine	S. asterophorum	Aerial	Spasmolytic	[70]
191	23, 24-2-methyl-tetrahydrofuran)Solanidine	S. cornifolium	Aerial		[472, 473]
192	Spiraloside C	S. spirale	Fruit		[474]
193	Spiraloside B	S. spirale	Fruit		[474]
194	Spiraloside A	S. spirale	Fruit		[474]
195	Soladulcine A	S. dulcamara	Aerial		[433]
196	Soladulcine B	S. dulcamara	Aerial		[433]
197	Esculeoside A	S. lycopersicum	Fruit		[475]
	Pregnane glycosides
198	Solanigroside A	S. nigrum	Whole		[476]
199	Solanigroside B	S. nigrum	Whole		[476]
200	5α-Pregn-16-en-3β -ol-20-one lycotetraoside	S. nigrum	Whole		[476]
201	(5α)-3-Hydroxypregn-16-en-20-one	S. lyratum	Whole		[194]
202	Hypoglaucin H	S. nigrum	Whole		[476]
202	Hypoglaucin H	S. rostratum	Aerial		[437]
203	16-Dehydropregnolone	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[194]
204	16-dehydropregnenolone 3-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-1-2)β-D-glucosiduronic acid	S. lyratum	Whole		[194]
205	Torvpregnanoside A	S. torvum	Aerial		[317, 331]
206	5α-pregn-16-en-3, 20-dione-6α-ol-6-O-[α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-3)-β-D-quinovoside]	S. torvum	Fruit	Anticancer	[317]
207	Torvpregnanoside B	S. torvum	Aerial		[331]
208	Ganaxolone	S. torvum	Aerial		[323]
209	Allopregnanolone	S. torvum	Aerial		[323]
210	Pregnanolone	S. torvum	Aerial		[323]
	Triterpenes
211	Betulinic acid	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
212	Lupeol	S. cathayanum	Aerial		[472, 473, 477]
		S. schimperianum	Aerial		[278]
		S. spirale	Leaf	Anticancer	[297]
213	Cycloeucalenone	S. cernuum	Leaf	Anticancer	[107]
214	24-oxo-31-norcycloartanone	S. cernuum	Leaf	Anticancer	[107]
215	Friedelin	S. lycopersicum	Seed		[478]
216	Ursolic acid	S. lyratum	Whole		[197]
		S. torvum	Aerial		[463]
		S. xanthocarpum	Root		[427]
217	2α, 3β-Dihydroxyursolic acid	S. torvum	Aerial		[463]
218	Daturaolone	S. arundo	Whole		[65]
219	Carbenoxolone	S. cernuum	Leaf		[109]
220	β-Amyrin	S. melongena	Aerial		[439]
221	Oleanolic acid	S. torvum	Aerial		[463]
221	Oleanolic acid	S. xanthocarpum	Root		[427]
222	2α-Hydroxyoleanolic acid	S. torvum	Aerial		[463]
223	3β-Acetoxy-11α, 12α-epoxyoleanan-13ß, 28-olide	S. torvum	Aerial		[463]
224	Solanoglycosydane Ⅰ	S. torvum	Fruit		[314]
	Diterpenes
225	Phytol	S. pseudocapsicum	Leaf		[263]
225	Phytol	S. villosum	Leaf		[434, 479]
226	Kaur-16-ene	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
227	Solanerioside A	S. erianthum	Leaf		[138]
228	Tricalysioside U	S. violaceum	Whole		[392]
	Sesquiterpenes
229	Roseoside	S. erianthum	Leaf		[138]
230	(6E, 10E)-5, 12-Dihydroxy-ß-nerolidol 5-O-β-D-glucoside	S. erianthum	Leaf		[138]
231	Amarantholidoside Ⅳ	S. erianthum	Leaf		[138]
232	3β-Hydroxysolavetivone	S. abutiloides	Root	Antifungal	[3]
232	3β-Hydroxysolavetivone	S. aethiopicum	Root		[29]
233	Solavetivone	S. abutiloides	Root	Antifungal	[3]
		S. aethiopicum	Root		[29]
		S. indicum	Root		[163]
		S. jabrense	Aerial		[166]
234	13-Hydroxysolavetivone	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
234	13-Hydroxysolavetivone	S. aethiopicum	Root		[29]
235	Lubimin	S. abutiloides	Root	Antifungal	[3]
235	Lubimin	S. aethiopicum	Root		[29]
236	Lubiminoic acid	S. aethiopicum	Root		[29]
237	Epilubimin	S. aethiopicum	Root		[29]
238	Epilubiminoic acid	S. aethiopicum	Root		[29]
239	Lubiminol	S. aethiopicum	Root		[29]
240	α-Farnesene	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
241	Nerolidol	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
242	2, 7, 10-Trimethyldodecane	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
243	Aethione	S. aethiopicum	Root		[29]
244	Anhydro-β-rotunol	S. aethiopicum	Root		[29]
245	(4S, 5R, 7S)-4, 11-Dihydroxy-guaia-1(2), 9(10)-dien	S. erianthum	Stem		[480]
246	Caryophyllene	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
247	Cadina-1(10), 4-diene	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
248	α-Gurjunene	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
249	Globulol	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
250	α-Guaiene	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
251	α-Calacorene	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
252	2-naphthalenemethanol	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
253	Octahydro-2, 2-dimethyl-4a, 7a-ethano-5H-cyclobut[e]inden-5-ol	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
254	4, 5-Dehydroisolongifolene	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
255	α -Caryophyllene	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
256	Solafuranone	S. indicum	Root		[163]
257	Lyratol D	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[199]
257	Lyratol D	S. septemlobum	Whole		[482]
258	Solajiangxin B	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[198]
258	Solajiangxin B	S. septemlobum	Whole		[482]
259	Septemlobin D	S. septemlobum	Whole		[483]
260	Blumenol A	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[199, 484]
261	Blumenol C	S. lyratum	Whole		[484]
262	Dehydrovomifoliol	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[199, 484]
263	Grasshopper ketone	S. lyratum	Whole		[484]
264	6α-Epoxy-7-megastigmen-9-one	S. lyratum	Whole		[484]
265	(1′R, 2R, 5S, 10R)2-1′, 2′-dihydroxy-1′-methylethyl)6, 10-dimethylspiro[4, 5]dec-6-en-8-one	S. lyratum	Whole		[484]
266	(1′S, 2R, 5S, 10R)2-1′, 2′-dihydroxy-1′-methylethyl)6, 10-dimethylspiro[4, 5]dec-6-en-8-one	S. lyratum	Whole		[484]
267	2-1′, 2′-dihydroxy-1′-methylethyl)6, 10-dimethyl-9-hydroxyspiro[4,5]dec-6-en-8-one	S. lyratum	Whole		[200, 484]
268	Boscialin	S. lyratum	Whole		[484]
269	1β-Hydroxy-1, 2-dihydro-α-santonin	S. lyratum	Whole		[193, 484]
270	Lyratol A	S. lyratum	Whole		[485]
271	Lyratol B	S. lyratum	Whole		[485]
271	Lyratol B	S. septemlobum	Whole		[482]
272	Lyratol C	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[199]
273	Lyratol G	S. lyratum	Whole		[196]
274	Solajiangxin A	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[198]
275	Solajiangxin C	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[198]
276	Solajiangxin D	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[200]
276	Solajiangxin D	S. septemlobum	Whole		[482]
277	Solajiangxin E	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[200]
278	Solajiangxin F	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[197]
278	Solajiangxin F	S. septemlobum	Whole		[482]
279	Solajiangxin G	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[197]
280	2-hydroxysolajiangxin E	S. lyratum	Whole	Anticancer	[200]
281	Dehydrocarissone	S. lyratum	Stem		[486]
281	Dehydrocarissone	S. septemlobum	Whole		[482]
282	Atractylenolide Ⅰ	S. lyratum	Stem		[486]
283	Ligucyperonol	S. septemlobum	Whole		[482]
284	Nardoeudesmol A	S. septemlobum	Whole		[482]
285	Solanerianone A	S. septemlobum	Whole		[482]
286	Pterocarptriol	S. torvum	Root		[487]
287	Selina-3β, 4α, 11-triol	S. torvum	Root		[487]
288	2-(1′, 2′-dihydroxy-1′-methylethyl)-6, 10-dimethylspiro[4, 5]dec-6, 9-dien-8-one	S. torvum	Root		[487]
289	10β, 12, 14-Trihydroxy-allo-aromadendrane	S. torvum	Root		[487]
290	10β, 13, 14-Trihydroxy-allo-aromadendrane	S. torvum	Root		[487]
291	2-(1′, 2′-dihydroxy-1′-methylethyl)-6, 10-dimethyl-9-hydroxy-spirodec-6-en-8-one	S. torvum	Root		[487]
292	1β, 10β, 12, 14-Tetrahydroxy-allo-aromadendrane	S. torvum	Root		[487]
293	1β, 10β, 13, 14-Tetrahydroxy-allo-aromadendrane	S. torvum	Root		[487]
294	Teferidin	S. schimperianum	Aerial		[278]
295	Teferin	S. schimperianum	Aerial		[278]
296	Ferutinin	S. schimperianum	Aerial		[278]
297	Bisabolol	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[488]
298	11, 12-O-Isopropylidenesolajiangxin F	S. septemlobum	Whole		[483]
299	Eudesmane	S. septemlobum	Whole		[281]
300	Vitispirane	S. septemlobum	Whole		[281]
301	Septemlobin A	S. septemlobum	Whole	Anticancer	[281]
302	Septemlobin B	S. septemlobum	Whole	Anticancer	[281]
303	Septemlobin C	S. septemlobum	Whole	Anticancer	[281]
304	3β, 11-dihydroxy-4, 14-oxideenantioeudesmane	S. torvum	Root		[487]
305	Aromadendrene oxide	S. erianthum	Fruit		[481]
306	Thujopsene	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
307	α-Cedrene	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
308	Cedrol	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
309	α-Hexylcinnamaldehyde	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
310	β-Cadinene	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
	Monoterpenes
311	Decanal	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
312	Decane	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
313	2, 4-Decadienal	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
314	1, 8-Cineole	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
315	Terpinen-4-ol	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
316	Linalool	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[489, 490]
317	Geraniol	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[490]
318	Limonene	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[490]
319	β-Cyclocitral	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
320	β-Ionone	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
		S. pseudocapsicum	Leaf		[263]
		S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
321	1, 2-Dihydro-1, 1, 6-trimethyl-naphthalene	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
322	trans-β -Damascenone	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
323	Loliolide	S. erianthum	Leaf		[137]
		S. americanum	Aerial		[49]
		S. pseudocapsicum	Leaf		[263]
324	Hotrienol	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[468, 490]
325	Neroloxide	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[468]
326	5-Ethynyltetrahydro-α, α, 5-trimethyl-2-furanmethanol	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[490]
327	Nerol	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[490]
328	8-Hydroxylinalool	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[491]
329	(R)-Linalyl β-D-glucoside	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[492]
330	(1R, 4E)-1-Ethenyl-6-hydroxy-1, 5-dimethyl-4-hexen-1-yl β-D-glucoside	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[492]
331	(R)-Linalyl β-vicianoside	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[492]
332	6-O-linked β-D-glucoside of (R)E)2, 6-dimethyl-3, 7-octadiene-2, 6-diol	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[468]
333	(3E, 6R)-2, 6-Dimethyl-3, 7-octadiene-2, 6-diol	S. vestissimum	Fruit		[468]
334	p-Cymenene	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
335	Dihydroactinidiolide	S. erianthum	Leaf		[137]
336	Apiole	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[488]
337	α-Terpinen-7-al	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
338	1, 3, 8-p-Menthatriene	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
	Flavonoids
339	Vitecetin	S. agrarium	Aerial		[31]
340	Quercetin	S. anguvi	Fruit	Anticancer	[31]
		S. elaeagnifolium	Seed		[493]
		S. incanum	Aerial		[494]
		S. melongena	Stem		[205]
		S. muricatum	Whole		[215]
		S. nigrum	Leaf		[92-98, 230-238, 495-497]
		S. torvum	Whole		[498]
341	Kaempferol 7-O-rhamnoside	S. asperum	Fruit		[67]
342	Rutin	S. anguvi	Fruit	Anticancer	[31]
		S. melongena	Stem		[499, 500]
		S. muricatum	Fruit		[215]
		S. nigrum	Leaf		[230]
		S. spirales	Aerial		[470]
343	Kaempferol 3-rutinoside-7-rhamnoside	S. asperum	Fruit		[67]
344	Afzelin	S. cernuum	Leaf		[109, 112, 501]
345	Quercitrin	S. cernuum	Leaf		[109]
345	Quercitrin	S. melongena	Stem		[205]
346	Astragalin	S. cernuum	Leaf		[501]
		S. crinitum	Aerial		[459]
		S. incanum	Aerial		[494]
		S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
347	Kaempferol 3-O-[α-apiofuranosyl-(1-2)]-α-rhamnoside	S. cernuum	Leaf		[501]
348	Kaempferol 3-O-[α-apiofuranosyl-(1-2)]-β-galactoside	S. cernuum	Leaf		[501]
349	Tiliroside	S. asperum	Fruit		[67]
		S. crinitum	Aerial		[123, 459]
		S. elaeagnifolium	Whole	Anticancer	[503]
		S. cernuum	Leaf		[501]
350	cis-Tiliroside	S. cernuum	Leaf		[501]
350	cis-Tiliroside	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
351	Kaempferol	S. crinitum	Aerial		[459]
		S. elaeagnifolium	Whole		[504]
		S. incanum	Aerial		[494]
		S. indicum	Whole		[505]
		S. nigrum	Leaf		[227]
		S. surattense	Whole		[99]
		S. torvum	Whole		[498]
352	Camelliaside C	S. erianthum	Leaf		[137]
353	Baimaside	S. incanum	Aerial		[506]
354	Narcissin	S. glabratum	Aerial		[141]
355	Isorhamnetin 3-glucoside	S. incanum	Aerial		[506]
356	Populnin	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
357	Quercetin 3-O-robinoside	S. paniculatum	Aerial		[258]
358	Kaempferol 3-O-(6″-O-cis-p-coumaroyl)-O-β-galactoside	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
359	Myricetin-3-galactoside	S. melongena	Stem		[205]
360	Apigenin	S. lyratum	Whole		[507]
360	Apigenin	S. torvum	Whole		[498]
361	Pelanin	S. tuberosum	Stem		[508]
362	Petanin	S. tuberosum	Stem		[508]
363	Peonanin	S. tuberosum	Stem		[508]
364	Keracyanin	S. betaceum	Fruit	Anticancer	[75, 76]
365	Pelargonidin 3-rutinoside	S. betaceum	Fruit	Anticancer	[75, 76]
366	Tulipanin	S. betaceum	Fruit	Anticancer	[75, 76]
367	Delphinidin 3-O-α-L-rhamnosyl-(1-6)-β-D-glucoside-3′-O-β-D-glucoside	S. betaceum	Fruit	Anticancer	[75, 76]
368	Cyanidin 3-O-(2″-O-xylosyl)rutinoside	S. betaceum	Fruit		[76]
369	Asterin	S. betaceum	Fruit		[76]
370	Biochanin A-7-O-β-D-apiofuranosyl-1-5)β-D-apiofuranosyl-1-6)β-D-glucoside	S. crinitum	Fruit		[122]
371	2R, 3R-5, 7, 4′-trihydroxy-dihydroflavon-3-O-α-D-glucosyl-6″-O-β-D-glucoside-6‴-p-hydroxy benzoate	S. elaeagnifolium	Whole	Anticancer	[503]
372	6, 2′, 3″, 5″, 4‴-Pentahydroxy-3, 7″-biflavone	S. dulcamara	Fruit		[130]
373	Kaempferol 8-C-β-D-galactoside	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial	Hepatoprotective	[502]
374	Kaempferol 8-C-glucoside	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
375	Kaempferol 6-C-glucoside	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
376	Vitexin	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
377	Vicenin Ⅱ	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
378	Quercetin 6-C-β-glucoside	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
379	Quercetin 3-O-β-galactoside	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
380	Isoquercitrin	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502-504]
		S. incanum	Aerial		[494]
		S. torvum	Root		[338]
		S. melongena	Stem		[205]
381	Quercetin 3-O-β-apiofuranosyl-(1-2)-O-β-galactoside	S. elaeagnifolium	Aerial		[502]
382	5-Hydroxy, 7, 2′, 3′, 5′-tetramethoxyflavone	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
383	Combretol	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
384	Baicalin	S. incanum	Aerial		[506]
385	Kaempferol 3‐O‐(6‴‐O‐2, 5‐dihydroxycinnamoyl)‐β‐D‐glucosyl(1-2) β‐D‐glucoside	S. incanum	Aerial		[506]
386	(±)-Naringenin	S. indicum	Whole		[505]
		S. nienkui	Whole		[509]
		S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[510]
		S. surattense	Whole		[99]
387	Manghaslin	S. lycopersicum	Fruit		[511]
388	Genkwanin	S. jabrense	Aerial		[167]
388	Genkwanin	S. palodusum	Aerial		[512]
389	Ombuine	S. jabrense	Aerial		[167]
390	Rhamnocitrin	S. jabrense	Aerial		[167]
390	Rhamnocitrin	S. palodusum	Aerial		[513]
391	Retusin	S. jabrense	Aerial		[167]
		S. palodusum	Aerial		[512]
		S. schimperianum	Aerial		[278]
		S. torvum	Fruit		[322]
392	Pentamethoxyquercetin	S. jabrense	Aerial		[167]
393	3-O-Methylquercetin	S. jabrense	Aerial		[167]
393	3-O-Methylquercetin	S. palodusum	Aerial		[513]
394	Kumatakenin	S. jabrense	Aerial		[167]
394	Kumatakenin	S. palodusum	Aerial		[513]
395	3′-Hydroxyflindulatin	S. jabrense	Aerial		[167]
395	3′-Hydroxyflindulatin	S. palodusum	Aerial		[513]
396	3, 7, 8-Trimethylherbacetin	S. jabrense	Aerial		[167]
397	3, 7, 8, 3′, 4′-Pentamethylgossypetin	S. jabrense	Aerial		[167]
397	3, 7, 8, 3′, 4′-Pentamethylgossypetin	S. palodusum	Aerial		[512, 513]
398	Diosmetin	S. nienkui	Whole		[509]
399	Formononetin	S. lyratum	Whole		[514]
400	Ononin	S. lyratum	Whole		[514]
401	Daidzein	S. lyratum	Whole		[507, 514]
402	Genistin	S. lyratum	Whole		[514]
403	5-Hydroxylononin	S. lyratum	Whole		[514]
404	2, 7-Dihydroxy-3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-methoxy-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one	S. nienkui	Whole		[509]
405	5-hydroxy-3, 7, 4′-trimethoxyflavone	S. schimperianum	Aerial		[278]
406	Kaempferol-3-O-β-D-glucoside	S. schimperianum	Aerial		[278]
407	Luteolin	S. schimperianum	Aerial		[278]
408	Tamarixin	S. torvum	Whole		[498]
409	Torvanol A	S. torvum	Root	Antidepressant, antiviral	[322, 332]
410	5-methoxy-(3, 4″-dihydro-3″, 4″-diacetoxy)-2″, 2′-dimethyl-(7, 8:5″, 6″)-flavone	S. erianthum	Leaf		[137]
411	5, 7, 8, 4′-tetrahydroxy-3-methoxyflavone-8-O-β-D-xyloside	S. rostratum	Aerial		[515]
412	3-O-Methylquercetin 3-O-β-D-galactoside	S. rostratum	Whole		[516]
413	3-O-Methylquercetin 3-O-β-D-glucoside	S. rostratum	Whole		[516]
	Lignans
414	Isolariciresinol	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
415	5-Methoxyisolariciresinol	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
416	Polystachyol	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
417	(+)-Lyoniresinol 3-O-D-glucoside	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
418	(-)-Lyoniresinol 3-O-D-glucoside	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
419	Alangilignoside C	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
420	(+)-(7S, 8R, 7′E)-4-Hydroxy-3, 5, 5′, 9′-tetram ethoxy-4′, 7-epoxy-8, 3′-neo-lign-7′-en-9-ol	S. erianthum	Stem		[480]
421	(-)-(7R, 8S, 7′E)-4-Hydroxy-3, 5, 5′, 9′-tetramethoxy-4′, 7-epoxy-8, 3′-neo-lign-7′-en-9-ol	S. erianthum	Stem		[480]
422	Liriodendrin	S. lyratum	Whole		[517]
423	Syringaresinol	S. lyratum	Whole		[517]
		S. nigrum	Whole		[496]
		S. surattense	Whole		[518]
424	Melongenamide A	S. melongena	Root		[210]
425	Cannabisin D	S. melongena	Root	Anti-inflammatory	[210]
426	Melongenamide B	S. melongena	Root	Anti-inflammatory	[210]
427	Grossamide	S. melongena	Root	Anti-inflammatory	[210]
428	Melongenamide C	S. melongena	Root	Anti-inflammatory	[210]
429	Cannabisin F	S. melongena	Root	Anti-inflammatory	[210]
430	Melongenamide D	S. melongena	Root	Anti-inflammatory	[210]
431	Cannabisin G	S. melongena	Root	Anti-inflammatory	[210]
432	1, 2-dihydro-6, 8-dimethoxy-7-hydroxy-1-(3, 5-dimethoxy-4-hydroxyphenyl)-N¹, N²-bis-[2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)ethyl]-2, 3-naphthalene dicarboxamide	S. melongena	Root		[210]
433	Sisymbrifolin	S. sisymbriifolium	Fruit		[519]
434	Grossamide K	S. melongena	Root		[210]
435	Pinoresinol	S. nigrum	Whole		[496]
436	Pinoresinol 4-O-β-D-glucoside	S. nigrum	Whole		[520]
437	Medioresinol	S. nigrum	Whole		[496]
437	Medioresinol	S. torvum	Stem		[436]
438	Syringaresinol-4′-O-β-D-glucoside	S. nigrum	Whole		[520]
439	Glycosmisic acid	S. surattense	Whole		[518]
440	Simulanol	S. surattense	Whole		[518]
441	Balanophonin	S. surattense	Whole		[518]
442	Ficusal	S. melongena	Root		[209]
443	Tribulusamide A	S. surattense	Whole		[518]
444	Clemastanin B	S. torvum	Fruit		[521]
	Other alkaloids
445	Xylogranatinine	S. cathayanum	Stem		[477]
446	Cernumidine	S. cernuum	Leaf		[109, 111, 112]
447	Isocernumidine	S. cernuum	Leaf		[111]
448	Cernidine	S. cernuum	Leaf		[501]
449	Ethyl orotate	S. cathayanum	Stem		[103, 477]
450	3-Indolecarboxylic acid	S. americanum	Aerial		[49]
451	L-Valyl-L-isoleucyl-L-leucine	S. asperum	Fruit		[67]
452	2-Methyltetrahydro-β-carboline	S. jabrense	Aerial		[166]
453	Proline	S. asperum	Fruit		[67]
454	Acetamide	S. schimperianum	Aerial		[277]
455	Stearamide	S. schimperianum	Aerial		[277]
456	(6E, 9E)N, N-dimethyloctadeca-6, 9-dienamide	S. schimperianum	Aerial		[277]
457	(2E)-3-(4-Hydroxyphenyl)-N-[(2S)-2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-2-methoxyethyl]-2-propenamide	S. torvum	Aerial		[450]
458	4-Coumaroyltyramine	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
		S. cathayanum	Stem		[522]
		S. indicum	Root		[163]
		S. melongena	Root		[209]
		S. surattense	Whole		[518]
		S. torvum	Aerial		[338]
		S. lyratum	Whole		[507]
459	N-trans-Feruloyltyramine	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
		S. cathayanum	Stem		[522]
		S. indicum	Root		[163]
		S. melongena	Root	Antidiabetic	[209]
		S. lyratum	Whole		[507]
460	N-trans-Feruloylmethoxytyramine	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
460	N-trans-Feruloylmethoxytyramine	S. cathayanum	Stem		[522]
461	N-trans-Caffeoyltyramine	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
462	N-trans-Feruloyldopamine	S. buddleifolium	Stem		[79]
463	N-trans-Feruloyloctopamine	S. cathayanum	Stem		[522]
463	N-trans-Feruloyloctopamine	S. septemlobum	Aerial		[523]
464	N-trans-p-coumaroyloctopamine	S. americanum	Aerial	Antidiabetic	[49]
464	N-trans-p-coumaroyloctopamine	S. torvum	Aerial		[524]
465	N-trans-p-feruloyloctopamine	S. americanum	Aerial	Antidiabetic	[49]
466	N-trans-p-coumaroyltyramine	S. americanum	Aerial	Antidiabetic	[49]
466	N-trans-p-coumaroyltyramine	S. melongena	Root	Antidiabetic	[49]
467	N-trans-p-feruloytyramine	S. americanum	Aerial	Antidiabetic	[49]
467	N-trans-p-feruloytyramine	S. torvum	Aerial		[524]
468	N-cis-p-Coumaroyltyramine	S. melongena	Root		[209]
469	Caffeoylputrescine	S. melongena	Stem		[205]
470	3-(3, 4-Dihydroxyphenyl)-N-[3-[[4-[[3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-oxo-2-propen-1-yl] amino]butyl]amino]propyl]-2-propenamide	S. melongena	Stem		[205]
471	Aurantiamide acetate	S. torvum	Aerial		[524]
472	N¹, N⁴, N⁸-Tris(dihydrocaffeoyl) spermidine	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
473	N-(4-Aminobutyl)-N-[3-[[3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-oxopropyl] amino]propyl]-3, 4-dihydroxybenzenepropanamide	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
474	N-(3-Aminopropyl)-N-[4-[[3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-oxopropyl] amino]butyl]-3, 4-dihydroxybenzenepropanamide	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
475	Soya-cerebroside Ⅰ	S. torvum	Root		[435]
	Sterols
476	Cilistol G	S. capsicoides	Leaf		[85]
477	Capsisteroid A	S. capsicoides	Leaf		[85]
478	Capsisteroid B	S. capsicoides	Leaf		[85]
479	Capsisteroid C	S. capsicoides	Leaf		[85]
480	Capsisteroid D	S. capsicoides	Leaf		[85]
481	Capsisteroid E	S. capsicoides	Leaf		[85]
482	Capsisteroid F	S. capsicoides	Leaf		[85]
483	β-Sitosterol	S. cathayanum	Stem		[477, 522]
		S. anguvi	Fruit		[34]
		S. cornifolium	Aerial		[472, 473]
		S. dulcamara	Fruit		[130]
		S. elaeagnifolium	Whole		[134, 504]
		S. indicum	Whole		[160]
		S. lycopersicum	Seed		[478]
		S. melongena	Aerial		[206, 439]
		S. schimperianum	Aerial		[278]
		S. surattense	Aerial		[518]
		S. torvum	Root		[526]
		S. trilobatum	Whole		[356]
		S. xanthocarpum	Fruit		[398]
484	Daucosterol	S. cathayanum	Stem		[522]
		S. chrysotrichum	Leaf		[120]
		S. elaeagnifolium	Whole		[504]
		S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
		S. ligustrinum	Aerial		[179]
		S. septemlobum	Aerial		[523]
		S. torvum	Root		[526]
		S. violaceum	Whole		[392]
485	Campesterol	S. elaeagnifolium	Seed		[134]
485	Campesterol	S. melongena	Root		[439]
486	Cholesterol	S. lycopersicum	Seed		[478]
486	Cholesterol	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[285]
487	γ-Sitosterol	S. lycopersicum	Seed		[478]
488	7-Oxositosterol	S. violaceum	Aerial		[391]
489	(3β)-7-Hydroxystigmast-5-en-3-yl β-D-glucoside	S. violaceum	Whole		[392]
490	Stigmasterol	S. cornifolium	Aerial		[472, 473]
		S. dulcamara	Fruit		[130]
		S. elaeagnifolium	Whole		[134, 504]
		S. lycopersicum	Seed		[478]
		S. melongena	Aerial		[439]
		S. septemlobum	Aerial		[523]
		S. surattense	Aerial		[527]
		S. xanthocarpum	Fruit		[398]
491	Brassicasterol	S. elaeagnifolium	Seed		[134]
492	Poriferasterol monoglucoside	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
493	7-Oxostigmasterol	S. violaceum	Aerial		[391]
494	β-stigmasteryl-3-O-β-D-6-palmityl) glucoside	S. septemlobum	Aerial		[523]
495	Clerosterol	S. elaeagnifolium	Seed		[134]
496	7-Sitoster-3β-ol	S. elaeagnifolium	Seed		[134]
497	(3β, 5α)Cholest-7-en-3-ol	S. lycopersicum	Seed		[478]
498	Stigmasta-5, 24(28)-dien-3-ol	S. elaeagnifolium	Seed		[134]
498	Stigmasta-5, 24(28)-dien-3-ol	S. torvum	Leaf		[318]
499	Avenasterol	S. elaeagnifolium	Seed		[134]
500	5, 24-Stigmastadienol	S. elaeagnifolium	Seed		[134]
501	γ-Tocopherol	S. lycopersicum	Seed		[478]
501	γ-Tocopherol	S. villosum	Leaf		[479]
502	Ergosterol	S. lycopersicum	Seed		[478]
503	Lanosterol	S. lycopersicum	Seed		[478]
504	Peroxyergosterol	S. lyratum	Stem		[486]
504	Peroxyergosterol	S. violaceum	Aerial		[391]
505	9, 11-Dehydroergosterol peroxide	S. lyratum	Stem		[486]
505	9, 11-Dehydroergosterol peroxide	S. violaceum	Aerial		[391]
506	Nigralanostenone	S. nigrum	Leaf		[528]
507	Tumacone A	S. nudum	Leaf		[242, 247]
508	Tumacone B	S. nudum	Leaf		[242, 247]
509	Tumacoside A	S. nudum	Leaf	Antiplasmodial	[242, 247]
510	Tumacoside B	S. nudum	Leaf	Antiplasmodial	[242, 247]
511	SN-1	S. nudum	Aerial	Antiplasmodial	[245]
512	SN-2	S. nudum	Aerial	Antiplasmodial	[245]
513	SN-3	S. nudum	Aerial	Antiplasmodial	[245]
514	SN-4	S. nudum	Aerial	Antiplasmodial	[245]
515	SN-5	S. nudum	Aerial	Antiplasmodial	[245]
516	9α, 11α-epidioxyergosta-6, 22-dien-3β-ol	S. septemlobum	Aerial		[523]
517	Carpesterol	S. capsicoides	Seed	Anticancer, antifungal	[86]
517	Carpesterol	S. sisymbriifolium	Fruit		[519]
518	Carpesterol methyl ether	S. xanthocarpum	Fruit	Antifungal	[401]
519	Carpesterol ethyl ether	S. xanthocarpum	Fruit	Antifungal	[401]
520	Stigmast-7-en-6-one, 3-β-D-glucosyloxy)22-hydroxy-4-methyl-(3β, 4α, 5α, 22R)	S. xanthocarpum	Fruit	Antifungal	[401]
521	Stigmast-7-en-6-one, 3-β-D-glucosyloxy)22-methoxy-4-methyl-(3β, 4α, 5α, 22R)	S. xanthocarpum	Fruit	Antifungal	[401]
522	Toptriol	S. glaucophyllum	Leaf		[529]
523	Cholecalciferol	S. glaucophyllum	Leaf		[530]
524	β-D-Glucoside, (1α, 3β, 5Z, 7E)-3, 25-dihydroxy-9, 10-secocholesta -5, 7, 10(19) -trien -1-yl	S. glaucophyllum	Leaf		[530]
525	Dehydrocholesterol
526	3, 4-Dihydro-3, 5, 8-trimethyl-3-(4, 8, 12-trimethyltridecyl)-2H-1-benzopyran-7-yl acetate	S. villosum	Leaf		[479]
527	Tumaquenone	S. nudum	Aerial		[247]
528	Abutiloside A	S. abutiloides	Root		[5, 7-9]
529	Abutiloside B	S. abutiloides	Root		[5]
530	Abutiloside H	S. abutiloides	Root		[5]
531	Abutiloside Ⅰ	S. abutiloides	Root		[5]
532	Abutiloside J	S. abutiloides	Root		[5]
533	Abutiloside K	S. abutiloides	Root		[5]
534	Abutiloside C	S. abutiloides	Root		[7, 8]
535	Abutiloside D	S. abutiloides	Root		[6]
536	Abutiloside E	S. abutiloides	Root		[6]
537	Abutiloside F	S. abutiloides	Root		[6]
538	Abutiloside G	S. abutiloides	Root		[6]
539	Aethioside A	S. aethiopicum	Stem		[28]
540	Aethioside B	S. aethiopicum	Stem		[28]
541	Aethioside C	S. aethiopicum	Stem		[28]
	Phenolic compounds
542	4-Caffeoylquinic acid	S. melongena	Stem, Leaf		[205, 531]
542	4-Caffeoylquinic acid	S. lyratum	Whole		[517]
543	5-Caffeoylquinic acid	S. melongena	Stem		[205]
543	5-Caffeoylquinic acid	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
544	(1R, 3R, 4S, 5R)-3-(Acetyloxy)-5-[[(2E)-3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-oxo-2-propen-1-yl]oxy] -1, 4-dihydroxycyclohexanecarboxylic acid	S. melongena	Stem		[205]
545	(1S, 3R, 4R, 5R)-3-(Acetyloxy)-4-[[(2E)-3-(3, 4-dihydroxyphenyl)-1-oxo-2-propen-1-yl]oxy] -1, 5-dihydroxycyclohexanecarboxylic acid	S. melongena	Stem		[205]
546	Chlorogenic acid	S. anguvi	Fruit	Anticancer	[31]
		S. guaraniticum	Leaf		[146]
		S. incanum	Aerial		[494]
		S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[532]
		S. lyratum	Whole		[517]
		S. melongena	Stem, Leaf		[205, 531]
		S. surattense	Whole		[99]
547	Neochlorogenic acid	S. lyratum	Whole		[517]
548	Rosmarinic acid	S. betaceum	Fruit		[78]
548	Rosmarinic acid	S. guaraniticum	Leaf		[146]
549	3, 5-Dicaffeoylquinic acid	S. melongena	Stem		[91]
550	(Z)-Neochlorogenic acid	S. melongena	Stem		[91]
551	Gallic acid	S. anguvi	Fruit	Anticancer	[31]
		S. cernuum	Leaf		[112]
		S. spirale	Aerial		[299]
		S. surattense	Whole		[99]
552	4-hydroxybenzoic acid	S. crinitum	Fruit		[122]
552	4-hydroxybenzoic acid	S. americanum	Aerial		[49]
553	Protocatechuic acid	S. lyratum	Whole		[514]
		S. spirale	Leaf		[297]
		S. nigrum	Whole		[520]
554	Vanillic acid	S. lyratum	Whole		[514]
		S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[510]
		S. nigrum	Whole		[520]
		S. vestissimum	Fruit		[491]
555	Caffeic acid	S. anguvi	Fruit	Anticancer	[31]
		S. guaraniticum	Leaf		[146]
		S. incanum	Aerial		[506]
		S. lycocarpum	Fruit		[532]
		S. lyratum	Whole		[194]
		S. melongena	Stem		[205]
		S. muricatum	Whole		[215]
		S. surattense	Whole		[99, 518]
		S. xanthocarpum	Root		[427]
556	P-Coumaric acid	S. americanum	Aerial		[49]
557	Isoferulic acid	S. cernuum	Leaf		[109, 112]
558	2, 4, 6-Trimethoxyphenol	S. torvum	Stem		[533]
559	Propionylsyringol	S. torvum	Stem		[533]
560	Resveratrol	S. americanum	Fruit		[45]
561	cis-p-Coumaric acid ethyl ester	S. crinitum	Fruit		[122]
562	cis-p-Coumaric acid	S. crinitum	Fruit		[122]
563	trans-p-Coumaric acid ethyl ester	S. crinitum	Fruit		[122]
564	trans-p-Coumaric acid	S. crinitum	Fruit		[122]
564	trans-p-Coumaric acid	S. incanum	Aerial		[506]
565	Erythro-1, 2-bis-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1, 3-propanediol	S. lyratum	Whole		[517]
566	Threo-1, 2-bis-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1, 3-propanediol	S. lyratum	Whole		[517]
567	Evofolin B	S. surattense	Whole		[518]
568	Ethyl caffeate	S. nienkui	Whole		[509]
569	Methyl salicylate	S. nienkui	Whole		[509]
569	Methyl salicylate	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
570	p-Hydroxybenzoic acid	S. nigrum	Whole		[520]
571	Vanillin	S. nienkui	Whole		[509]
572	Protocatechuic aldehyde	S. nienkui	Whole		[509]
573	3, 5-Diethoxyphenol	S. nigrum	Leaf		[528]
574	Quinic acid	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
575	Phenol	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
576	Salicylic acid	S. torvum	Aerial		[524]
577	Violaxanthin	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
578	Lutein	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
579	α-Carotene	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
580	Kryptoxanthin	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
581	Luteoxanthin	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
582	15-cis-β-Carotene	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
583	Foliaxanthin	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
584	Physoxanthin	S. sessiliflorum	Fruit		[525]
585	Coniferol	S. surattense	Whole		[518]
586	1, 2-Bis(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-1, 3-propanediol	S. surattense	Whole		[518]
587	Threo-1-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-[4-[(E)-3-hydroxy-1-propenyl]-2-methoxy phenoxy]-1, 3-propanediol	S. surattense	Whole		[518]
588	Tyrosol C	S. validinervium	Aerial		[534]
589	(E)-Coniferaldehyde	S. melongena	Root		[209]
590	trans-Cinnamic acid	S. spirale	Leaf	Antibacterial	[297]
591	Methyl caffeate	S. torvum	Fruit	Antibacterial, antidiabetic	[315, 320, 335-337]
592	(E)-2, 3-dihydroxycyclopentyl-3-(3′, 4′-dihydroxyphenyl)acrylate	S. torvum	Fruit	Antihypertensive	[521]
593	Eugenol	S. torvum	Stem		[533]
	Coumarins and coumestans
594	Scopolin	S. cathayanum	Stem	Anticancer	[104, 105]
		S. lyratum	Whole		[194]
		S. septemlobum	Aerial		[523]
595	Scopoletin	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
		S. indicum	Seed		[535]
		S. ligustrinum	Aerial		[179]
596	Coumarin	S. incanum	Leaf		[494]
		S. surattense	Whole		[99]
		S. vestissimum	Fruit		[491]
597	Fraxetin	S. indicum	Seed		[536]
598	Isofraxidin	S. indicum	Seed		[536]
599	Umbelliferone	S. lycopersicum	Aerial		[438]
600	7-hydroxy-6, 8-dimethoxy-3-(4′-hydroxy-3′-methoxyphenyl)-coumarin	S. indicum	Seed		[536]
601	Cleosandrin	S. indicum	Seed		[535]
602	4, 4′-Biisofraxidin	S. indicum	Seed		[535]
603	Arteminorin A	S. indicum	Seed		[535]
604	Indicumin E	S. indicum	Seed		[536]
605	Bergaptin	S. lycopersicum	Aerial		[438]
606	Aesculetin	S. lycopersicum	Aerial		[438]
606	Aesculetin	S. validinervium	Aerial		[534, 537]
607	6, 7-Dimethoxycoumarin	S. melongena	Root		[209]
608	Escopoletin	S. nigrum	Whole		[520]
609	Isoscopoletin	S. validinervium	Aerial		[534, 537]
610	1′-O-7-esculetin-4′-O-1″-ethylenglycol-β-D-glucose	S. validinervium	Aerial		[534]
611	Coumestrol	S. lyratum	Whole	Anti-inflammatory	[88]
612	9-hydroxy-2′, 2′-dimethyl[5′, 6′:2, 3]-coumestan	S. lyratum	Whole	Anti-inflammatory	[88]
613	Solalyratin A	S. lyratum	Whole	Anti-inflammatory	[88]
	Coumarinolignoids
614	Indicumine A	S. indicum	Seed	Anti-HBV	[535]
615	Indicumine B	S. indicum	Seed	Anti-HBV	[535]
616	Indicumine C	S. indicum	Seed		[535]
617	Indicumine D	S. indicum	Seed		[535]
	Fatty acids and esters
618	Hexadecanoic acid	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
		S. vestissimum	Fruit		[490]
		S. villosum	Leaf		[434, 479]
619	Octadecanoic acid,	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
619	Octadecanoic acid,	S. erianthum	Leaf		[137]
620	Linoleic acid	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
620	Linoleic acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
621	Lignoceric acid	S. cathayanum	Stem		[477]
622	Corchorifatty acid B	S. americanum	Aerial		[49]
623	Linolenic acid	S. erianthum	Leaf		[137]
623	Linolenic acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
624	9(Z), 11(E)-Octadecadienoic acid	S. erianthum	Leaf		[137]
625	13S-Hydroxy-9(Z), 11(E)-octadecadienoic acid	S. erianthum	Leaf		[137]
626	9S-Hydroxy-10(E), 12(Z), 15(Z)-octadecatrienoic acid	S. erianthum	Leaf		[137]
627	Decosahexaenoic acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
628	Decosapentaenoic acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
629	Oleic acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
630	Eicosapentaenoic acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
631	Lauric acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
632	Palmitoleic acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
633	Arachidonic acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
633	Arachidonic acid	S. trilobatum	Whole		[356]
634	Myristic acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
635	Gamma-linolenic acid	S. glabratum	Whole		[140]
636	9-Oxo-(10E, 12Z)-octadecadienoic acid	S. melongena	Calyx		[91]
637	(10Z, 12E)-9-Oxo-10, 12-octadecadienoic acid	S. melongena	Calyx		[91]
638	Eicosanoic acid	S. torvum	Root		[526]
639	Octacosanoic acid	S. torvum	Root		[526]
640	4-(3, 5-Di-Tert-Butyl-4-Hydroxy Phenyl) butyl Acrylate	S. villosum	Leaf		[479]
	Others
641	Puerariafuran	S. lyratum	Whole	Anti-inflammatory	[88]
642	1, 2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
643	1, 4-Dimethyl-benzene	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
644	n-Nonane	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
645	n-Octanol	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
646	Methyl hexadecanoate	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
647	Dodecane	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
648	Undecanal	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
649	Nonanal	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
650	Eicosane	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
650	Eicosane	S. betaceum	Fruit		[77]
651	Methyl-9, 12-octadecadienoate	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
652	Hexadecane	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
653	9, 17-Octadecadienal	S. aculeastrum	Leaf		[11]
654	Hexanal	S. betaceum	Fruit		[78]
655	Ethyl butanoate	S. betaceum	Fruit		[78]
656	4-Hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone	S. betaceum	Fruit		[78]
657	2, 3-Butanediol	S. betaceum	Fruit		[78]
658	cis-3-Hexen-1-ol	S. betaceum	Fruit		[78]
659	3(Z)-Hexenal	S. betaceum	Fruit		[78]
660	Ethyl-α-D-arabinofuranoside	S. lyratum	Whole		[514]
661	Solalyratin B	S. lyratum	Whole	Anti-inflammatory	[88]
662	1-{1-[2-(2 hydroxypropoxy) propoxy] propan-2-yloxy} propan-2-ol	S. schimperianum	Aerial		[277]
663	5-Hydroxymethyl furfural	S. torvum	Stem		[533]
664	Solanesol	S. tuberosum	Leaf		[538]
665	3-Hydroxymethyl-7-methoxywutaifuranol	S. cathayanum	Whole		[102]
666	Phenylmethyl 2-O-β-D-xylosyl-β-D-glucoside	S. incanum	Aerial		[506]
667	Zizybeoside Ⅰ	S. lycopersicum	Fruit		[511]
668	Methyl salicylate 2-O-β-D-glucosyl-(1-2)-[O-β-D-xylosyl-(1-6)]-O-β-D-glucoside	S. lycopersicum	Fruit		[511]
669	Phenethyl alcohol 8-O-β-D-glucosyl-(1-2)-[O-α-L-arabinosyl-(1-6)]-O-β-D-glucoside	S. lycopersicum	Fruit		[511]
670	Benzyl alcohol 7-O-β-D-glucosyl-(1-2)-[O-α-L-arabinosyl-(1-6)]-β-D-glucoside	S. lycopersicum	Fruit		[511]

3.1 Steroidal Saponins

Steroidal saponins are prominent characteristic components in Solanum species, from which 134 compounds, 1-134, have been obtained (Fig. 1). Among all the studied species, S. torvum was the one studied mostly, resulting in the isolation of 32 saponins including chlorogenone (1), (5α, 25S)-spirostan-3, 6-dione (2), diosgenone (13), 56-72, neochlorogenin (73), solanolactosides A-C (91-93), torvosides J-L (95-97) and 98-102 from the leaves, fruits, aerial parts and the whole plant [323, 325, 430, 435, 436, 448, 449, 451, 452, 463].

Fig. 1
Steroidal saponins 1-**134** from *Solanum*

Included herein are spirostane saponins, SC1-SC6 (35-40), isolated from the leaves of S. chrysotrichum [113, 114, 115, 117], and lyconosides Ⅰa (46), Ⅰb (47), Ⅱ (48), Ⅲ (49), and Ⅳ (50) reported from the fruits of S. lycocarpum. Indiosides G (82) and H (83) with an iso-type F ring were isolated from the methanolic extract of the whole plant of S. violaceum, together with indioside Ⅰ (86), and two unusual furostanol saponins with a deformed F ring, indiosides J (87) and K (88) [391, 392]. In addition, four steroidal sapogenins, indiosides L-O (78-81) were also obtained from this plant [391]. Indioside L (78) is a rare spirostanoid possessing a 1, 4-dien-3-one moiety in ring A. Compounds 80 and 81 represent rare examples of spirostane with the 3β, 7α-diol-5, 6-ene moiety compared to the normal 3β, 7β-diol-5, 6-ene derivatives [391].

Two C-22 steroidal lactone saponins, namely solanolactosides A, B (91, 92) and two spirostanol glycosides, torvosides M, N (23, 8) were isolated from ethanol extract of aerial parts of S. torvum. Compounds 91 and 92 possess the aglycon of solanolide (94), while 23 and 8 have the aglycons of yamogenin (76) and neochlorogenin (73), resp. The aglycon of 94 is an unusual C-22 steroidal lactone sapogenin [316].

An avenacoside-type saponin (51) was isolated from aerial parts of S. surattense [305]. Two 23-keto-spirostanol glycosides, torvoside Q (18) and paniculonin B (126) were obtained from aerial parts of S. torvum [323, 331]. Torvosides A (64), B (65), F (67) and G (112) displayed a positive reaction with Ehrlich reagent, suggesting these to be furostanol glycosides [449]. Abutilosides L (106), M (107) and N (108), a 22S, 25S-epoxy-furost-5-ene type glycosides, and abutiloside O, being a 20, 22-seco-type steroidal glycoside, were isolated from the fresh fruits of S. abutiloides [4].

Anguiviosides Ⅲ (118) and Ⅺ (119) are hydroxylated at C-23 and C-26 on the spirostanol and furostanol skeletons, resp. Anguiviosides XV (120) and XVI (121) are based on a 16, 22-dicarbonyl aglycon, with 121 hydroxylated at C-23 and C-26 followed by ring closure. The biogenetic pathway of 16, 22-dicarbonyl compounds such as 120 and 121 might be considered via a 17R-hydroxy spirostanol such as pennogenin, 11 or via a 3β, 16β, 22, 26-tetrahydroxycholesterol glycoside such as anguivioside A (114) [43].

Solanum saponins were reported to have various bioactivies, e.g. cytotoxic [257], anticancer [316, 317, 392], hepatoprotective [242, 247], antihypertensive [289, 291], antimelanogenesis [211], antifungal [113, 114, 117], anti-inflammatory [331, 392, 448] anticonvulsant [305] and antiviral [257].

Nuatigenosido (15) from the roots of S. sisymbriifolium presented anti-hypertensive effect in experimental hypertensive rats [291]. Dioscin (19) showed antimelanogenesis effect on α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH)induced melanogenesis in B16 murine melanoma cells. It significantly downregulated the expression of tyrosinase, TRP-1, and TRP-2, which led to the reduction of α-MSH-induced melanogenesis in B16 cells [211]. Degraded diosgenone (13) from S. nudum exhibited hepatoprotective effect on the liver of mice infected with Plasmodium berghei; necrosis of hepatocytes in mice infected with malaria decreased 47-65 [249].

Spirostanic saponins SC2-SC6 (36-40) from the leaves of S. chrysotrichum displayed activity against dermatophytes and yeasts. 36 was the most active in indicating fungicidal effect against Candida albicans and non-albicans strains [113, 114, 117].

Indioside H (83), borassoside E (85), indioside Ⅰ (86) and yamoscin (89) demonstrated cytotoxic activity against six human cancer cell lines (HepG2, Hep3B, A549, Ca9-22, MDA-MB-231, and MCF-7) (IC₅₀=1.83-8.04 μg/mL) [392]. Seperately, 85 and 86 presented inflammation inhibitory effects on SAG (IC₅₀=0.62±0.03 and 2.84±0.18 μg/mL, resp.). Compound 85 also inhibited elastase release with IC₅₀ values of 111.05±7.37 μg/mL [392], while 89 showed anti-neutrophilic inflammatory activity against SAG with an IC₅₀ value of 3.59 μM [331].

Torvosides N (8) and M (23) revealed significant cytotoxicity against MGC-803, HepG2, A549 and MCF-7 as compared to the positive control, CDDP [316]. Torvosides J-L (95-97), isolated from the leaves of S. torvum, exhibited substantial anticonvulsant activity in zebrafish seizure assays [323], while 96 also showed considerable antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium verticillioides with MIC ranging from 31.25 to 250 μg/mL [318]. Compounds 99 and 100 inhibited both inflammatory mediators SAG (IC₅₀=3.49 and 2.87 μM) and elastase release (IC₅₀=2.69 and 0.66 μM) [331], while 123-125 convinced cytotoxicities against melanoma A375 [317].

3.2 Steroidal Alkaloids

Sixty-three steroidal alkaloids (135-197), as other principal components in Solanum were reported from this genus (Fig. 2). Compounds 139-156 are derivatives of solasodine (145), one of the main glycoalkaloid constituents in Solanum spp., even as indicated by several numbers of species from which it has been isolated. Solamargine (139) is the major steroidal alkaloid constituent of Solanum plants and literature data showed that it has been revealed in 18 species.

Fig. 2
Steroidal alkaloids **135**-**197** from *Solanum*

Compounds such as 139, solasonine (142), β1-solasonine (143) and solanigroside P (156) with three sugar units and α-L-rhamnose at C-2 or a hydroxyl group on the steroidal backbone may be potential candidates for the treatment of gastric cancer [228].

Featured here are steroidal pseudoalkaloid oligoglycosides, robeneosides A (153) and B (154) and lobofrutoside (155) from the fruits of S. lycocarpum [182, 447], and a rare 16β-H steroidal alkaloid (157) from aerial parts of S. surattense [305]. Also included are leptinine Ⅰ (171) and Ⅱ (172), the solanidane alkaloid glycosides, isolated from aerial parts of S. orbignianum [46].

Two rare C-3 amino steroidal alkaloids, 188 and 189, were isolated from aerial parts of S. triste [362, 471]. Three C-27 steroidal glycoalkaloids, spiralosides A (194), B (193), C (192), were obtained from the fruits of S. spirale [474]. Esculeoside A (197), a tomato saponin, is a significant component of ripened tomatoes isolated by Toshihiro et al. [475].

Various bioactivities e.g. antibacterial [80, 384, 403, 406, 407], anticancer [13, 305, 458], antidiabetic [182, 183], antifungal [279], anti-inflammatory [303], CNS depressant [294], leishmanicidal [182, 183], molluscicidal [384, 403, 406, 407], neurotoxicity [106], schistosomicidal [185, 186, 447, 457], spasmolytic [70] and trypanocidal [185, 186, 447, 457] were highlighted as have been exhibited by steroidal alkaloids of Solanum.

Antioxidant activity of 145 and tomatidine (167) from the berries of S. aculeastrum was investigated using DPPH, ABTS and reducing power assays, and the highest inhibition was observed when the two compounds were combined, followed by 145 and 167 [13]. Furthermore, 145 exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity at doses of 30 mg/kg, with a maximum inhibition of 77.75% in carrageenan-induced rat paw edema, comparing to indomethacin (81.69%). It also showed stronger (46.79effect in xylene induced ear edema in mice [303]. Intraperitoneal injection of 145 (25 mgkg) significantly delayed latency of hind limb tonic extensor phase in the picrotoxin-induced convulsions, and it also potentiated thiopental-provoked sleep in a dose-dependent manner [294]. Moreover, 145 exhibited not only the antibacterial activity against Klebsiella and Staphylococcus spp. at concentration of 1 mg, together with 139 and 141 [403], but also a potent stemness and invasion inhibitory effect on human colorectal cancer HCT116 cells [155]. Colony Spheroid formation assay showed that solasodine dose-dependently prohibited HCT116 cell stemness. CD133, CD44, Nanog, Oct-4 and Sox-2 were inhibited by 145 to reverse stemness and similar mechanism was stimulated in vivo. Transwell and scratch wound assays revealed that 145 impeded HCT116 cell invasion and migration potential strengthened by TGF-β1. Moreover, solasodine attenuated TGF-β1-induced EMT and decreased MMPs while in vivo study showed the same trend. The results of this study implied that 145 may be a novel therapeutic drug for CRC treatment [155].

Burger et al. documented that the crude extract and aqueous fraction containing 139 displayed potent non-selective cytotoxicity (IC₅₀ 15.62 μgmL) and noteworthy 9.1-fold P-glycoprotein inhibition at 100 μgmL [15]. Zhang et al. assessed the molecular mechanism underlying the anti-cancer effect of 139 in human cholangiocarcinoma QBC939 cells. The results revealed that 139 inhibited the viability of QBC939 cells in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, it significantly induced the apoptosis of QBC939 cells and altered the mitochondrial membrane potential of cells. Quantitative polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed that 139 decreased the mRNA level of B cell lymphoma-2 (Bcl-2) Bcl-extra-large and X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein but increased the mRNA level of Bcl-2-associated X protein (Bax) In addition, western blot analysis demonstrated that 139 inhibited the protein expression of Bcl-2 and poly ADP ribose polymerase (PARP) and promoted the protein expression of Bax, cleaved PARP, caspase 3, cleaved caspase 3 and caspase [97].

Compounds 139, 141 and 157 demonstrated cytotoxicity against A549, whereas 139 and 156 showed cytotoxicity against HepG2 cell lines [305]. Compounds 139 and 141 were confirmed as the effective components for Oncomelania snail control. The death rate of Oncomelania snails was 94.2 at a concentration of 2.50 mg/L (139) [406], while 141 exhibited a lethality of 100against O. hupensis [407]. Moreover, 139 and solasonine (142) displayed not only leishmanicidal activity against promastigote forms of Leishmania amazonensis [185], but also antidiabetic activity by inhibiting the serum glucose increase in oral sucrose-loaded rats and suppressing gastric emptying in mice [182]. A synergistic effect was observed for a mixture of the compounds [183]. Compound 139 also expressed stronger trypanocidal activity (IC₅₀=15.3 μg/mL), when compared to benznidazol (IC₅₀=9.0 μg/mL), the only drug used to treat Chagas' disease [186].

Tomatine (168) was illustrated to exert significant neuroprotective effect on H₂O₂-induced SH-SY5Y cells, by enhancing intracellular anti-oxidant enzyme activity and brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression and restraining H₂O₂-induced oxidative stress [106]. Isojuripidine (190) displayed spasmolytic activity by hindering phasic contractions induced by both histamine and acetylcholinein guinea-pig ileum [69].

3.3 Pregnane Glycosides

Compounds 198-210 from Solanum comprise pregnane glycosides (Fig. 3). These compounds coexist in small amounts and could be biosynthesised from steroidal glycosides [194]. Solanigrosides A (198), B (199), 200 and hypoglaucin H (202) were isolated from S. nigrum [476]. Aerial parts of S. torvum gave the highest number of pregnane glycosides, torvpregnanosides A (205) and B (207), ganaxolone (208), allopregnanolone (209) and pregnanolone (210). The whole plant of S. lyratum afforded compounds 203 and 204 [194].

Fig. 3
Pregnane glycosides **198**-**210** from *Solanum*

Pregnane glycosides have reportedly demonstrated anticancer properties [194, 317]. Compound 203 exhibited substantial cytotoxic activity against A375-S2, HeLa, SGC-7901, and Bel-7402 cell lines, with IC₅₀ values of 13.1 to 49.8 μg/mL [194]. Compound 206 indicated cytotoxicity against human melanoma A375 (IC₅₀=39.66 μM) [317].

3.4 Triterpenes

Fourteen triterpenes (211-224) were identified in Solanum spp. (Figure 4), with lupeol (212) from S. cathayanum [472, 473, 477], S. schimperianum [278], S. spirale [297] and ursolic acid (216) from S. lyratum [197], S. torvum [463] and S. xanthocarpum [427], as the major ones. Six triterpenes 216-217 and 221-224 were reported from the aerial parts of S. torvum [314, 463]. Two cycloartane triterpenoids, cycloeucalenone (213) and 24-oxo-31-norcycloartanone (214) are the main constituents of S. cernuum leaves [107]. Daturaolone (218) was isolated for the first time from S. arundo [65].

Fig. 4
Triterpenoids **211**-**224** from *Solanum*

Solanum triterpenes have indicated to possess anticancer properties. For instance, 213 presented significant activity against KB-Oral cavity cancer (IC₅₀=26.73 μgmL) [297], while 213 exhibited selective activity against lung tumor cell line (NCIH460). The anti-nociceptive activity observed for 213 and 214 was found to be related to the inhibition of different mediators involved in inflammation and nociceptive process. Both compounds decreased cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) protein expression, although only 214 reached a significant response (P < 0.05 vs control) [107].

3.5 Diterpenes

Four diterpenes, e.g., phytol (225) from S. pseudocapsicum [263], kaur-16-ene (226) from S. aculeastrum [11], solanerioside A (227) from S. erianthum [138], and tricalysioside U (228) from S. violaceum [392] were reported from Solanum spp. (Figure 5). Solanerioside A (227) was the first example of a diterpenoid glucoside featuring a 14, 15-dinor-cyclophytane scaffold [138].

Fig. 5
Diterpenes **225**-**228** from *Solanum*

3.6 Sesquiterpenes

Sesquiterpenes, 229-310, have been characterized from Solanum spp. (Figure 6). Majority of these compounds, 260-282, were from S. lyratum [196, 197, 199, 200, 484, 485, 486] and S. septemlobum [281, 482, 483]. Likewise, 283-285 and 298-303 were reported from S. septemlobum [281, 482, 483]. Compounds 229-231 and 245-255 were isolated from the leaves and fruits of S. erianthum [138, 481], while 286-293 were from the roots of S. torvum [487]. Compounds 236-239 were isolated from the roots of S. aethiopicum [29], while 240-242 were obtained from the leaves of S. aculeastrum [11]. The fruits of S. betaceum yielded compounds 306-310 [77].

Fig. 6
Sesquiterpenes **229**-**310** from *Solanum*

The bioactivities notedly displayed by sesquiterpenes include anticancer [197, 198, 199, 200, 281, 484] and antifungal [3]. 3-β-Hydroxysolavetivone (232), solavetivone (233) and lubimin (235) from the roots of S. abutiloides exhibited anti-fungal activities against Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Melongenae [3]. The eudesmane-type, solajiangxin D (276), and vetispirane-type, solajiangxin E (277) from S. lyratum demonstrated crucial cytotoxicities (ED₅₀=2.1-3.7 μg/mL) against three human cancer lines (P-388, HONE-1, and HT-29) [200]. Solajiangxin B (258), A (274) and C (275) from the whole plant of S. lyratum [198] and Septemlobin D (259), and 11, 12-O-isopropylidene solajiangxin F (298) [483] also showed significant cytotoxicities (ED₅₀=1.9-3.7, and 3.0-7.3 μM, resp.) against these three cancer cell lines. Lyratol D (257), blumenol A (260), dehydrovomifoliol (262) and lyratol C (272) from the whole plant of S. lyratum displayed critical cytotoxic activities against HONE-1 nasopharyngeal, KB oral epidermoid carcinoma, and HT29 colorectal carcinoma cells (IC₅₀=3.7-8.1 μM) [199].

Eudesmane-related sesquiterpenes, septemlobins A (301) and B (302) and vetispirane-type, septemlobin C (303) exhibited significant cytotoxicities against three cancer cell lines (P-388, HONE-1, and HT-29) (IC₅₀=3.8-7.5 mΜ) [281].

3.7 Monoterpenes

Twenty-eight monoterpenes (311-338) have been characterized from Solanum spp. (Fig. 7), with β-Ionone (320) reported from S. aculeastrum [11], S. pseudocapsicum [263] and S. betaceum [77], and loliolide (323) obtained from S. erianthum [137], S. americanum [49] and S. pseudocapsicum [263], as dominant monoterpenes. Majority of the compounds, 316-318 and 324-333 [468, 489, 490, 491, 492], were obtained from the fruits of S. vestissimum. Hotrienol (324), with very sweet and flowery flavor is a well-known constituent of the leaf oil of Cinnamomum camphora. It has also been found in a large number of other natural tissues, such as tea, grapes, wines passion fruit, elderberry flowers, Achillea ligustica and papaya fruit [468]. Seven monoterpenes, 311-313 and 319-322 were reported from the leaves of S. aculeastrum [11], and glycosides 329-332 were the aroma precursors in S. vestissimum fruit peelings [468, 492].

Fig. 7
Monoterpenes **311**-**338** from *Solanum*

3.8 Flavonoids

Seventy-two flavonoids 339-413 have been identified in the genus Solanum (Fig. 8), with quercetin (340) and kaempferol (351) as the primary flavonoids. Several glycosylated flavonoids, e.g., afzelin (344), astragalin (346), kaempferol 3-O-[apiofuranosyl-(1→2)]- α-rhamnoside (347) and -β-galactoside (348) from S. cernuum [501], and camelliaside C (352) from S. erianthum [137] were obtained. Five kaempferol derivatives 373-377 were reported from S. elaeagnifolium [502]. Moreover, three anthocyanins 361-363 were isolated from the red and purple tubers of S. tuberosum [508], while five anthocyanin rutinosides 364-368 were reported from the fruits of S. betaceum [75, 76]. Anthocyanins are the largest group of water-soluble pigments in the plant kingdom. They are responsible for most red and blue colours in fruits, vegetables, and have been used in the food industry as pigments, owing to their bright attractive colours, high water solubility and associated health benefits [76]. In addition, diverse flavonoids, such as 388-397 from S. jabrense [167] and S. palodusum [513] and 399-403 from S. lyratum [514] were reported.

Fig. 8
Flavonoids **339**-**413** from *Solanum*

Flavonoids of Solanum have displayed various biactivities e.g., anticancer [31, 75, 76, 503], anti-depressant and antiviral [322, 332] and hepatoprotective [502] characteristics. Compound 373 exhibited significant hepatoprotective and curative effects against histopathological and histochemical damage induced by paracetamol in liver [502], while 349 and 371 displayed cytotoxicity against breast MCF7 and liver HPG2 cancer cell lines [503].

Compound 340 and rutin (342) indicated potent and concentration-dependent free radical-scavenging activity [45]. They also inhibited peroxidation of cerebral and hepatic lipids subjected to iron oxidative assault. Compound 340 induced in vitro antiproliferative and apoptotic activities on Jurkat cells (IC₅₀=11.77±2.4 mg/mL) [23], while 364-367 showed antioxidant activities [75]. Torvanol A (409) from the roots of S. torvum exhibited antidepressant, anxiolytic and adaptogenic effects [316], as well as anti-HSV-1 activity (IC₅₀=9.6 μgmL) [322].

3.9 Lignans

Lignans, widely distributed in the plant kingdom, are a family of secondary metabolites produced by oxidative dimerization of two phenylpropanoid units. Although their molecular scaffold consists only of two phenylpropane (C6-C3) units, lignans exhibit an enormous structural diversity originating from various linkage patterns of these phenylpropane units. As the C-8-C-3′/C-7-O-C-4′ linked lignans containing two chiral centers (C-7 and C-8) comprise the core of 2, 3-dihydrobenzo[b]furan [480].

Lignans are rare in the genus Solanum [79], with only 31 compounds (414-444) having been isolated (Fig. 9). Compounds 414-419 were obtained from the stems of S. buddleifolium [79], while 424-432, 434 and 442 were isolated from the roots of S. melongena [208, 209, 210]. Several neo-lignans, sisymbrifolin (433) from the fruits of S. sisimbriifolium [519], ficusal (442) from the roots of S. melongena [209], glycosmisic acid (439), simulanol (440) and balanophonin (443) from the whole plant of S. surattense [518] were identified. A pair of new C-8-C-3′/C-7-O-C-4′ linked neolignan enantiomers, 420 and 421, were isolated from the stems of S. erianthum [480]. Lignanamides 424-432 and 434 were obtained from the roots of S. melongena [210].

Fig. 9
Lignans **414**-**444** from *Solanum*

Among lignans from the genus Solanum, only lignanamides (425-432) were reported with bioactivities. They displayed anti-inflammatory activities by inhibition of nitric oxide production in lipopoly-saccharide-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages (IC₅₀=16.2 to 58.5 μM) [210].

3.10 Other Alkaloids

The alkaloids have a natural (2-aminopyrrolidin-1-yl) carboxamidine alkaloidal base acylated with isoferulic (3-hydroxy-4-methoxycinnamic) acid with Z and E configurations, resp. [111]. Thirty-one alkaloids 445-475 have been isolated from Solanum spp. (Fig. 10), comprising types of cyclic guanidine alkaloids, e.g., cernumidine (446) and isocernumidine (447) from the leaves of S. cernuum [109, 111, 112]. Bioactive long chain amides, 454-456, exhibiting antimicrobial activity against Escherichia coli and Candida albicans were isolated from aerial parts of S. schimperianum [277]. Compounds 472-474 were obtained from S. sessiliflorum [525].

Fig. 10
Other alkaloids **445**-**475** from *Solanum*

Antidiabetic activity was illustrated by Solanum alkaloids [49, 209]. Four amides, N-trans-p-coumaroyl -octopamine (464) and -tyramine (466), and N-trans-p-feruloyl -octopamine (465) and -tyramine (467) exhibited antidiabetic properties by enhancing α-glucosidase inhibitory activity in a study involving dual high-resolution α-glucosidaseradical scavenging inhibition profiling [35]. Moreover, 459, 466 and 468 demonstrated possession of inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase (IC₅₀=500.6, 5.3 and 46.3 μM, resp.) [209].

3.11 Sterols

Sixty-six sterols (476-541) were obtained from the genus Solanum (Fig. 11), with β-sitosterol (483), daucosterol (484) and stigmasterol (485) as the main sterol constituents. Clistol G (476) and capsisteroids A-F (477-482) were obtained from the leaves of S. capsicoides [85], tumacones A (507) and B (508) and tumacosides A (509) and B (510) were from the leaves of S. nudum [242-247], carpesterol (517) was isolated from the seeds of S. capsicoides [86], and its derivatives (518-521) were reported from the fruits of S. xanthocarpum [401]. From the seeds of S. elaeagnifolium, 491, 495, 496 and 498 were yielded [134]. Additionally, two 26-aminochole- stane-type glycosides, abutilosides A (528) and B (529), and five 26-hydroxycholestane-type glycosides, abutilosides C-G (534-538), were isolated from the fresh roots of S. abutiloides [5-9]. These compounds are important intermediates in the biogenesis of steroidal alkaloids [5].

Fig. 11
Sterols **476**-**541** from *Solanum*

Sterols in Solanum have indicated possession of anticancer [86], antifungal [401], and antiplasmodial [242, 245, 247] features. For instance, 509 and 510 displayed in vitro antimalarial activity against P. falciparum chloroquine-resistant FCB-1 strain (IC₅₀=27 and 16 μM) [247]. Compounds 511-515 from aerial parts of S. nudum demonstrated antiplasmodial activity on hepatic trophozoites of P. vivax. All the steroids reduced the number of hepatic P. vivax trophozoites. Among them, 506 and 512 reduced the number of hepatic trophozoites by 47and 39resp. [245]. Compound 517 produced antiproliferative activity in glioma (U251), breast (MCF-7), kidney (786-0), ovary (OVCAR-03), and K562 cell lineages [86]. In addition, 505-509 displayed antifungal activity by inhibiting radial growth of A. niger and T. viride [401].

3.12 Phenolic Compounds

Fifty-two phenolic compounds (542-593) were recorded from Solanum (Fig. 12). The fruits of S. crinitum have yielded 552, 561-564 [122]. Aerial parts of S. torvum indicated a great wealth of phenolic compunds, e.g. 558-559, 576, 591-593 [315, 320, 335-337, 521, 524, 533]. The highest numbers of phenols, 542-546, 549-540, 552, 555 and 589 were reported from stems of S. melongena [205] while 574-575 and 577-584 were mentioned from the fruits S. sessiliflorum [525].

Fig. 12
Phenolic compounds **542**-**593** from *Solanum*

Phenolic compounds in Solanum have displayed antibacterial [297, 320, 335-337, 524], anticancer [31], anti- diabetic [297, 320, 335-337, 524] and antihypertensive [521] activities. Chlorogenic acid (546) (21.90±0.02 mgg), gallic acid (551) (17.54±0.04 mgg) and caffeic acid (555) (16.64±0.01 mgg) have indicated potent and concentration-dependent DPPH radical-scavenging activity (IC₅₀=275.03±7.8 μg/mL) [31], and 551 and 555 reportedly have great potentials as natural source of antidiabetic and antioxidant drug [336]. trans-Cinnamic acid (590) showed antibacterial activities (MIC=250 μg/mL) against Staphylococcus aureus [297], and antimycobacterial activities (inhibition zone=0-22 mm) against Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae (ESBL-), M. tuberculosis (H³⁷Rv) and M. tuberculosis (Rifampin) [320]. Methyl caffeate (591) not only significantly reduced the cell proliferation, but also increased formation of fragmented DNA and apoptotic body in MCF-7 cells. In this study, Bcl-2, Bax, Bid, p53, caspase-3, PARP and cytochrome c release were detected by western blot analyses [474]. The effects of oral administration of 591 (10, 20 and 40 mgkg) in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats, including body weight, fasting blood glucose, plasma insulin, hemoglobin, glycated hemoglobin, total protein, hepatic glycogen and carbohydrate metabolism enzymes have been studied for 28 days. At 40 mgkg, the compound significantly prevented the increase in blood glucose level after glucose administration at 60 min in comparison to the hyperglycemic control group. It also produced remarkable reductions in blood glucose and increased body weight in streptozotocin induced diabetic rats [335]. Takahashi et al. further established that 591 has a most favorable structure for both sucrase and maltase inhibition against sucrose and that its moderate inhibitory action against alpha-glucosidase provides a prospect for antidiabetic usage of S. torvum fruit [337].

3.13 Coumarins and Coumestans

Seventeen coumarins 594-610 and three coumastans 611-613 were isolated from Solanum spp. (Fig. 13). The seeds of S. indicum yielded the highest number of coumarins 597-598 and 600-604 [535, 536], while coumestans 611-613 were from the whole plant of S. lyratum [88]. Scopolin (594), scopoletin (595) and coumarin (596) are the main coumarins in Solanum. Compounds 611-613 showed in vitro anti-inflammatory activities with IC₅₀ values in the range of 6.3-9.1 μM [88].

Fig. 13
Coumarins and coumestans **594**-**613** from *Solanum*

3.14 Coumarinolignoids

Four coumarinolignoids known as indicumines A-D (614-617) were obtained from the seeds of S. indicum [535] (Fig. 14). Coumarinolignoids, including cleomiscosins, aquillochins and malloapelins, are unique and rare in nature. Coumarinolignoids of the cleomiscosins type bearing cleomiscosins A-D, 8-epi-cleomiscosin A, and malloapeli A functionalities have been identified in a few genera, including Cleome viscosa, Mallotus apelta, and Rhododendron collettianum. The compounds with such functionalities, especially cleomiscosins A-C and 8-epi-cleomiscosin A, which contributed to biological activities, have been reported with hepatoprotective and tyrosinase inhibition activities [535].

Fig. 14
Coumarinolignoids **614**-**617** from *Solanum*

3.15 Fatty Acids and Esters

Nine saturated (618-619, 621, 627-628, 631, 634, 638-639) and 13 unsaturated (620, 622-626, 629, 630, 632, 633, 635-637, 640) fatty acids were reported from Solanum (Fig. 15). The whole plant of S. glabratum has yielded the highest number of fatty acid and esters (627-635) in Solanum spp. [140]. Hexadecanoic acid (618), notably the major fatty acid component in Solanum, was isolated from aerial parts of S. aculeastrum [11] S. vestissimum [489] and S. villosum [434, 479].

Fig. 15
Fatty acids and esters **618**-**640** from *Solanum*

3.16 Others

Thirty other kinds of compounds (641-670) were also obtained from Solanum spp. (Fig. 16). Most of them, 642-653, were from the leaves of S. aculeastrum [11] and 654-659 were yielded from the fruits of S. betaceum [78]. An aldehyde puerariafuran (641) and a cyclic eight-membered α, β-unsataturated ketone, solalyratin B (661) were isolated from the whole plant of S. lyratum [88]. Compounds 641 and 661 showed in vitro anti-inflammatory activities, with IC₅₀ values in the range 6.3-9.1 μM [88]. Also presented here are two furans, ethyl-α-D-arabinofuranoside (660) from the whole plant of S. lyratum and 5-hydroxymethyl furfural (663) from the stems of S. torvum [533]. Five aromatic glycosides (666-670) were also isolated from the aerial part of S. incanum [494] and the fruit of S. lycopersicum [511].

Fig. 16
Other compounds **641**-**670** from *Solanum*

4 Conclusion and Future Prospects

From 1990 to 2017, phytochemical studies on the 65 Solanum species have yielded at least 670 compounds (134 steroidal saponins, 63 steroidal alkaloids, 13 pregnane glycosides, 128 terpenes, 75 flavonoids, 31 lignans, 31 alkaloids, 66 steroids, 52 phenolic compounds, 20 coumarins and coumestans, 4 coumarinolignoids, 23 fatty acids and esters, and 30 other types of compounds).

Pharmacological studies on Solanum genus have focused on antioxidants and anticancer activities. A total of 17 species (fruits of S. aculeastrum, S. americanum, S. muricatum, S. sessiliflorum and S. spirale, seeds of S. capsicoides, the stems of S. cathayanum and S. tuberosum, the roots of S. diphyllum, aerial parts of S. surattense and S. torvum and the whole plant parts of S. aethiopicum, S. nigrum, S. anguivi, S. septemlobum, S. violaceum and S. xanthocarpum) have been explored for anticancer activities and have exhibited significant results.

S. xanthocarpum has outstandingly demonstrated the most diverse pharmacological activities e.g. antioxidants and antitumor, anti-fungal, anti-bacterial, antileishmanial, mosquito larvicidal, molluscicidal, antidiabetic, asthmatic, hepatoprotective, diuretic, nephrotoxicity, antinociceptive, anti-psoriatic, and antiurolithiatic.

Steroidal alkaloids have been presented as being largely responsible for various pharmacological activities of Solanum species, e.g. antibacterial (139, 141 and 145), anticonvulsant and CNS depressant (145), antidiabetic (139, 142 and 144), anti-fungal (145 and 174), anti-inflammatory (145), antileishmanial (139 and 142), molluscicidal (139 and 141), nephrotoxicity (168), antioxidants and antitumor (139, 141, 145, 158, 168 and 180), antiprotozoa (139 and 142), schistosomicidal (139 and 142), spasmolytic (190) and anti-trypanosomal (139).

The genus Solanum seems to possess great potential, yet majority of the species remain unknown or scantily studied for the chemical constituents. It would be very necessary for the phytochemistry researchers to explore and investigate more of its species. The vast pharmacological activities envinced by many compounds from Solanum genus should attract the attention of the pharmacological community to determine their exact target sites, structure-activity relationships and other medicinal applications.

Notes

Compliance with Ethical Standards

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Authors and Affiliations

Joseph Sakah Kaunda
- 1,2
Ying-Jun Zhang
- 1,3
Email author

1. State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650204, People's Republic of China

2. Graduate School of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, People's Republic of China

3. Yunnan Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, People's Republic of China