Introduction

At the 1992 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), the international community agreed that forest resources and lands should be sustainably managed to meet the social, economic, cultural and spiritual human needs of present and future generations (Hickey and Innes 2008; Rawat et al. 2008). Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) was considered as an integral component of sustainable development (Rawat et al. 2008).

There are many processes and initiatives for the development, testing, and implementation of C & I for SFM at the international and national level (Mrosek et al. 2006). Most countries participated in one or more of these processes, and there have been numerous initiatives and processes to streamline efforts towards SFM (Rawat et al. 2008). One of the eight processes is the Near East process, and Iran is one member of 30 countries applying the Near East process (FAO 1999). This process was initiated in Cairo, Egypt, in 1996. An FAO/UNEP Expert Meeting on C & I for SFM identified 7 criteria and 65 indicators applied at the regional and national levels (FAO 1999; Kotwal et al. 2008). Although the goal of these processes is to achieve SFM, the C & I vary regionally, reflecting regional differences in forests and their values. Seven criteria of the Near East process are: (1) Extent of forest resources (four indicators); (2) Conservation of biological diversity in forest areas (11 indicators); (3) Health, vitality and integrity (nine indicators); (4) Productive capacity and functions (4 indicators); (5) Protective and environmental functions (9 indicators); (6) Maintenance and development of socio-economic functions and conditions (19 indicators); (7) legal and institutional frameworks (nine indicators) (FAO 1999).

Each criterion is related to a key element of sustainability and is described by one or more indicators. Indicators are the parameters that measure specific quantitative and qualitative attributes and help monitor trends in the sustainability of forest management over time. Indicators can provide critical information to the forest managers and other stakeholders in forest-related decision-making (FAO 1999; Kotwal et al. 2008; Rawat et al. 2008).

Some studies evaluated the status of SFM at international and national levels. Wada and Shibasaki (1998), in evaluating SFM, stated that according to a comparative analysis, the currently available information on forest condition cannot be used to judge spatially whether forest use is sustainable. Siry et al. (2005) considered the trend of SFM in the world. They concluded that many countries in the world are trying to achieve SFM, and that they are trying to report data. According to the data, these countries are moving toward SFM goals. Empirical evidence that forests are actually well managed and protected, however, is often lacking. Enhanced SFM requires better reporting and verification, monitoring of more areas, and enhanced implementation of SFM criteria and indicators in future. Howell et al. (2008) demonstrated that there has been progressive improvement in national reporting using C & I of SFM in Australia. This trend was strengthened, especially over the past 5 years, with the adoption of C & I by some states for monitoring, auditing and reporting. Kotwal et al.(2008) conducted SFM through community participation in India. They stated that the indigenous knowledge of these traditional societies can be utilized to enhance the capacities of professional forest managers by providing technical needs-based training. Also, institutionalization of the workforce could be a viable option for the sustainable management of forests. Without making use of this rich resource, our valuable knowledge will be underutilized. Rawat et al. (2008) argued that the sustainability of people-oriented management initiatives such as joint forest management can be enhanced by involving communities in applying and monitoring sustainability through C & I approaches. For successful application and monitoring C & I by communities, it is important that we take care of the institutionalization and capacity-building needs of the communities. Some information about Iran's forests was described in the forest resource of Iran section (Table 1).

We evaluate the status of SFM in Iran and describe where the country lies in its path towards SFM. According to Svensson et al. (2009) the evaluation process is the most important part of all successful development processes. Therefore, we evaluated Iran's situation by accrediting existing data for the C & I adopted in the Near East process, and identifying the national challenges and opportunities for SFM.

Methods and materials

This research was based on library references. The published data of FAO and FRWO (Forests, Range and Watershed Management Organization of Iran) and other references were analyzed. Extremes of climate limit Iran forests to less than 7.4% of the total land area. There are 12.4 million ha forest, including temperate, semi-humid, semi-arid and arid forests in Iran. According to the available definition of FAO, forest is an area covered by trees with the height of 5 m with canopy cover of more than 10%, covering a minimum area of 0.5 ha (FRWO 2009). Ecologists and botanists divided Iran forests into five vegetation regions with consideration of climate (Table 1). Iran is considered one of the dry or semi-arid and low forest cover countries (LFCC). The Global Forest Resources Assessment was the most comprehensive in its 55-year history and for the first time one global definition of forest was agreed upon and used throughout the world. The assessment was a joint Endeavour carried out by FAO in cooperation with its member countries and a number of partners. The selection indicators in our study depended on the objectives of the assessment (which must be clearly defined) and on the framework for indicator development that was adopted. We reviewed sustainable forest management in Iran by analyzing FAO and FRWO available data in 1990-2010. Unfortunately, other useful data for analyzing were not available.

Results and discussion Criterion 1: Extent of forest resources

The extent of forest resources in a country is the first of the thematic elements characterizing SFM (FAO, 2006). This criterion has four indicators. Two of four indicators are described at follows:

Indicator 1.1: Area and percentage of forests and "other wooded lands" (including plantations, agro forestry, shelterbelts) with their change over time (deforestation, reforestation and conversion)

FRA estimated the total forest area of Iran to be about 16.4 million ha (FAO 2005). Woodlands and plantation areas comprised 5.3 million ha (32.5%) and 0.6 million ha (3.7%) of the total forest area, respectively (Table 2) (FAO 2005).

The estimation of forest area in Table 2 is based on information from 1997. There is no information available for estimating changes over time, but any deforestation is unlikely to exceed the annual planting rate, so the original data have been used for all reporting years.

According to the 2005 FRA, forest area in Iran did not change between 1990 and 2010 (FAO 2010), but globally, forests shrank in area by approximately 2% (Earth trends 2003; FAO 2006).

The per capita forest area in Iran is 0.2 ha, equal to 1/3 of the world average of 0.6 ha (Marvie Mohadjer 2005; Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003). As the world population continues to increase and forest areas decrease, it is likely that forests will continue to decrease in area. An increase in the area of plantations may help offset future losses of forest area (Marvie Mohadjer 2005).

In recent years, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), defined in Article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol, stimulated sustainable development and emission reductions (Wada and Shibasaki 1998). The CDM allocates credits for reforestation and forest restoration projects. These projects have direct and indirect impacts on local communities, such as the provision of employment and increased income for local people (Farhikhtegan 2009). Developing countries can easily benefit from them. As Iran is classified as a developing country and LFCC, it has a high potential to profit from these plans. Payments of CDM credits for certified emission reduction (CER), are made based on each CER being equivalent to one ton of CO₂ (Wada and Shibasaki 1998), and native and non-native rapid growth species can be used in these projects. Because of high profitability of these projects, if they are implemented and managed correctly, it will be possible to restore degraded forests and increase the present forest area, as well as gaining the other benefits already mentioned. Forest plantations provide other opportunities such as the optimum use of soil and water resources for sustainable development, the prevention of currency exports by reducing or eliminating wood imports, reducing pressure on forests for providing wood, creating new job opportunities in related activities and industries, as well as helping to sustain the protection and conservation of the natural forest. The importance of natural resources and forests is widely recognized and at its meeting from 8 to 10 July 2009, the G8 declared support for international organizations combating greenhouse gas emissions and desertification (G8 summit 2009).

Indicator 1.2: Area and percentage of forests for which management plans are made

Forest plans are most used in the Caspian forests because of the commercial importance of these forests. Forest plans were prepared for 1.3 million ha (8% of forests and wooded lands in Iran), and exploitation plans are being executed in one million ha of these forests. On average globally, 43% of the world's forests are managed (Siry et al. 2005), whereas, the equivalent figure in Iran is 8%.

These plans are being managed by government, the private sector, and contracting cooperatives (Table 3). The government manages a much larger area than either of the other two categories (Aftab 2005). The relative efficiency of three groups needs to be assessed, so that the optimum management regime can be selected.

According to Article 45 of the constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the ownership of natural resources (forests, ranges, mines, seas, lakes, mountains and valleys, etc.) is public (FRWO 2009). At present, 16 million ha of forest in Iran are owned by public bodies (FAO 2005). However, the area in private ownership is increasing, although the majority of the world's forests remain under public ownership (84% of forests and 90% of other wooded lands) (FAO 2006). These public resources in Iran are managed by a governmental organization, namely the Forest, Range and Watershed Management Organization (FRWO).

Criterion 2: Conservation of biological diversity in forest areas

Assessing, monitoring, and reporting on biodiversity are important activities aimed at guiding SFM. Monitoring of biodiversity and the changes caused by forestry practices is important in assessing the effectiveness of management and the cumulative changes brought about by forest use (FAO 2006).

Species indicators: Indicator 2.6: Area and number of species at risk in forest areas

The Arasbaran forests, with an area of 153, 000 ha, have been designated primarily for the conservation of biodiversity. According to the FRA 2005, primary forests cover only 200, 000 ha (1.2%) of the total forest cover of Iran. Primary forests fulfill many essential functions other than the conservation of biodiversity: soil and water conservation, carbon sequestration and the preservation of aesthetic, cultural and religious values (FAO 2006). The statistics for conservation areas and the number of species at risk in forest areas are shown in Table 4 (FAO 2005).

According to the IUCN Red List, only Aquilaria malaccensis (Agarwood) is considered as a vulnerable tree species for Iran. The national list contains two endangered species and seven vulnerable species (FAO 2005). Based on the national list prepared by FRWO, yew (Taxus baccata L.) and boxwood (Buxus hyrcana Porjak) are considered endangered. The following are vulnerable (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003): Cornus sanguinea L., Pyrus kandevanica Ghahr., Khat. & Mozaff., Pyrus turcomanica Maleev, Quercus robur L., Rhizophora mucronata Poir., and Thuja orientalis L. Many other Iranian species are endangered or on the verge of extinction due to site limitations, forest degradation and other problems. Such species include (Sagheb-Talebi et al. 2003) Acer platanoides, Betula pendula, Castanea sativa, Dalbergia sisso, Prunus avium, Prunus mahaleb, Quercus iberica, Quercus magnusquamata, Sorbus aucuparia, Sorbus torminalis, Ulmus glabra, Zelkova carpinifolia.

By FAO definition (FAO 2006), threatened tree species include critically endangered, endangered and vulnerable species. Threatened tree species in Iran based on IUCN and FRWO definition are about 0.2% and 1.8% of the native tree species, respectively. Globally, approximately 5% of native tree species are considered to be threatened (FAO 2006), a greater percentage than in Iran.

Iran's diversity of ecosystems means that there is a high diversity of plants and animals in the country. The support of organizations such as IUCN will improve protection of these valuable resources by financial and educational support.

Criterion 3: Health, vitality and integrity

Healthy forests are essential for SFM, yet forests, like other ecosystems, are subject to a number of threats that can cause tree mortality or reduce their ability to provide a full range of goods and services (FAO 2006). The health of forests for SFM is evaluated by Criterion 3. The indicators related to this criterion are described as follows:

Indicators of external influences Indicator 3.1: Area and percentage of forest (plantations/natural forests) affected by natural fires, storms, insects and diseases, drought, and wild animals (game)

Different factors affect forest health and vitality. These factors include, but are not limited to, fire, insects and diseases, overexploitation of forest products, poor management, uncontrolled grazing, and invasive species (FAO 2006). It will take time and money to monitor all of these factors. As a result, only some factors are monitored: fire, insects, and diseases.

In Iran, the average annual area affected by insects and diseases increased from 111, 000 ha to 220, 000 ha (approximately 1.39% of the total forest area of Iran). FAO data indicate that the area of forests affected by diseases and insects from 42 and 48 countries respectively is about 1.4% of the total forest area for each agent (FAO 2006). Globally, the area affected by insects decreased, whereas, the area affected by diseases increased (FAO 2006). The figures for Iran are typical of the rest of the world.

Fire is another damage factor for forests. Fire experts suggest that larger fires may occur in the future because of more extreme weather conditions (ABC news 2007; Lturralde 2007). The trend towards hotter and drier summer weather is contributing to hotter, more intense fires.

In the 2000 reporting period, the average area burned annually in Iran was 6, 000 hectares of forests, equivalent to 0.05% of the forest area (Table 5), whereas globally, the reported value was at least 27.7 million hectares of forests (almost 0.9% of the forest area in 91 countries). The average annual area affected by forest fire decreased by nearly 40% in Iran from 10, 000 ha to 6, 000 ha during the 1990-2000 period (FAO 2005). There were no data for the 2000-2010 period (FAO 2010). Globally, there was a decrease of approximately 0.5% (FAO 2006). The area of other wooded land affected by pests and disease is not assessed in Iran. Hot weather dehydrates the fuel on the forest floor, increasing fire risk. The dryness of the climate also reduces soil dampening by rain (Lturralde 2007). In addition to climate warming, aging forests is the other major factor that can affect forest health. The aging trees are more vulnerable to insects, diseases, adverse environmental conditions, and forest fires. An abundance of aging forests increases potential for major outbreaks of forest pests (Government of Alberta 2009).

Anthropogenic influence indicators (site degradation) Indicator 3.5: Average annual consumption of fuel wood per capita

Globally, approximately 3 billion people rely on fuel wood or charcoal for heating and cooking (Gbetnkom 2008). Although the main energy resources in Iran are fossil fuels such as gas and oil, people without access to fossil fuels use firewood as their primary source of energy. Forests are a source of firewood in rural areas. The overexploitation and improper use of forests is the most important factor in forest ecosystem destruction. Complete and accurate information is not available in the amount of fuel wood used by villagers. Statistics related to legally harvested fuel wood are shown in Table 5 (FAO 2005).

In 2005, approximately 20, 000 m3 of fuel wood was gathered from forest areas. Harvested fuel wood decreased from 425, 000 m3 to 20, 000 m3 from 1990 to 2005. In recent years, the harvesting of fuel wood declined, because fossil fuels replaced fuel wood, reflecting development in rural areas and changes in livelihood patterns. Determining the amount of harvested fuel wood will help assess progress toward SFM. If information on the dependence of local people on forest resources is incomplete, villager needs will be ignored by management. This will result in reduced participation by local people in sustainable development. To help reduce damage to forest resources, Article 69 of the Fourth Program of Economic, Social and Cultural Development relates to the supply of fuel wood for nomads, indigenous forest peoples and rural people.

Criterion 6: Maintenance and development of socio-economic functions and conditions

Indicators of economic condition Indicator 6.1: Value of wood products

Forests provide a wide range of economic and social benefits to humankind. These include contributions to the overall economy – for example through employment, processing and trade of forest products and energy – and investments in the forest sector. They also include the hosting and protection of sites and landscapes of high cultural, spiritual or recreational value. Maintaining and enhancing these functions is an integral part of SFM (FAO 2006). Information on the status of and trends in socio-economic benefits is thus essential in evaluating progress towards SFM (FAO 2006). Criterion 6 is an assessment tool to determine the trends in socio-economic benefits.

The statistical data for round wood removal value are shown in Table 5 (FAO 2005). Calculations are based on ＄1 being equivalent to 800 rials in 1990, 8, 000 rials in 2000 and 8, 700 rials in 2005. Although legal constraints and attention to sustainable management should moderate harvest levels, in the 2000s, industrial wood harvest levels were greater than in previous years. Increasing wood harvest is caused by increasing wood requirements. Some requirements are compensated by an increase in wood imports. Wood products are usually imported in a semi-processed or processed form. The importing countries therefore do not benefit from processing the wood products. The deficit may be improved through the development of agro-forestry systems and greater imports of unprocessed logs.

Indicator 6.2: Value of Non-Wood Forest Products

NWFPs play a major role in rural household economics and welfare all over the world (Aiyeloja and Ajewole 2006; Babulo et al. 2009; Mamo et al. 2007). Although forests provide a variety of products such as fruits, nuts, honey, fodder, medicinal extracts, construction materials, natural dyes, tannin, gums, resins, latex and other exudates (Aiyeloja and Ajewole 2006), complete information and statistics are not available for the value of NWFP removals. The values of NWFPs removals in Iran are shown in Table 6, as well as in Asia and the world for the period 1990-2005 (FAO 2005).

In 2005, the total reported value of NWFPs removals in Iran amounted to about ＄551 000 (Table 6). The total derived value of NWFPs was related to plant products. Exudates, raw materials for medicine and aromatic products and food were identified as the main products traded in Iran. Among these, exudates had the highest value (＄84, 780), followed by raw materials for medicine and aromatic products (＄6, 560) and food (＄710) in 2005. Exudates included about 99.7% of NWFP value in Iran. Harvest levels declined throughout the period (FAO 2005). The reported global value of NWFP removal in 2005 was about ＄4.7 billion, whereas, total value of NWFP trade in Asia was ＄1.7 billion (FAO 2006; Simangunsong 2008). In Iran, the reported value of NWFP removal decreased significantly (from million in 1990 to 1, 000 in 2005). Globally, it appears that the total value of removals increased from 1990 to 2000, then declined from 2000 to 2005. In Asia, the reported value of NWFP removal increased significantly (from.0 billion in 1990 to.4 billion in 2000). Iran's contributions to NWFP harvest in Asia and the world were about 0.034% and 018% in 2000, respectively.

Exudates included Zedu (A.commonis, Amygdalus sp.) and turpentine (Pastacia atlantica). Although these products have high value, a lack of processing industries and appropriate markets for these products result in their export at a low price. After processing, countries such as Iran re-import them at a much higher price. The reported value of NWFP removals in Iran is very low. There are many reasons for this, including inadequate determination of the forest potential, insufficient research on the value and role of NWFPs in the national economy, and the lack of comprehensive plans for organizing and managing these resources (identification and exploitation plans, processing and marketing).

Indicators of the distribution of benefits Indicator 6.3: Employment generation in the forest sector

Millions depend on bio-energy as their main source of fuel not only for cooking and heating but more importantly, as a source of employment and income (Domac et al. 2005). Among the various impacts to forests, the most significant is probably the potential to create jobs and income through forest exploitation (Gan and Mayfield 2007). Undoubtedly, employment issues, especially in countries dominated by young people, such as Iran, are among the most important concerns and problems for human societies.

According to the definitions of FAO (FAO 2005), primary production of goods includes employment in activities such as industrial round wood, wood fuel, and NWFPs. Provision of services contains direct employment in activities related to services from forests and woodlands.

Among the employment opportunities in Iranian forests, primary production of goods had the highest employment (87, 400 person years), followed by unspecified forestry activities (11, 800 person years), and provision of services (8, 900 person years) in 2000 (FAO 2005). In Iran, forest sector employment increased significantly by about 26% (Table 7), whereas in Asia, sector employment decreased significantly by about 9% (from 9 million in 1990 to 8 million in 2000) (FAO 2006). Globally, reported employment in forestry declined slightly from 1990 to 2000 (FAO 2006). It is clear that the income obtained from each employment unit in Iran was lower than in Asia and the world. The exploitation of forest products in Iran generally takes a traditional form and has low economic productivity.

Employment in the sector of provision of services was less than other sectors. This is due to a lack of awareness of the environmental benefits of this resource. Ecotourism development could play an important role in increasing employment in the forest sector. Ecotourism will develop through improving awareness of the environmental benefits of the forest and creating infrastructure for increased well-being (Heshmatol Vaezin and Ghanbari 2009). Employment in the forest sector can be increased by developing proper forest plans in the northern forests, especially for NWFPs, by developing ecotourism plans, marketing and processing of forest products and through other means. Only about 20% of the northern forests are managed through forest plans relating to exploitation of NWFPs.

Conclusion

Although, the information to evaluate the trend in SFM in Iran was incomplete, we compiled some information based on C & I. Comparison of some indicators with the values for the rest of the world revealed that the situation in Iran is very different. Although some indicators reveal a better situation in Iran, the majority suggests that Iran lags the rest of the world in the implementation of SFM. Siry et al. (2005) considered the trend of SFM in the world. They concluded that many countries are trying to achieve SFM, and that they are trying to report their data. These actions suggest that they are moving toward SFM goals.

At present, the forests and wooded lands of Iran are owned by public bodies, whereas 84% of world forests and 90% of other wooded lands are under public ownership (FAO 2006). The average annual area affected by insects and diseases was approximately 1.39% of total forests of Iran. The area of forests affected by diseases and insects from 42 and 48 countries respectively suggests that approximately 1.4% of total forests area is affected by each agent (FAO 2006). The per capita forest area in Iran is 0.2 ha, 1/3 of the world average (Marvie Mohadjer 2005). On average, 43% of the world forests are managed (Siry et al. 2005), but the equivalent figure in Iran is only 8%. In the 2000 reporting period, the average area burned annually in Iran was 0.05% of the forest area, whereas globally, it was almost 0.9%. In 2005, forests designated for conservation of biodiversity constituted approximately 0.93% of the total area of Iran forests, whereas in the world, it was 11% of the total forest area

Iran, like many countries, is trying hard to find ways to use its forests sustainably. Not all C & I needed to assess SFM have been determined or defined. However, a consistent and comprehensive framework of criteria and indicators to monitor progress towards SFM is being applied. Defining some of the C & I is still at an early stage. An adverse economic situation will have negative effects on human livelihoods. Major obstacles to assessment of the SFM trend are the quality and reliability of the data. The data collection methods must be scientifically valid and the data collected must have high accuracy.

Acknowledgements

The authors express their deep sense of gratitude to Prof. Dr. John Innes (University of British Colombia) and Dr. Jacek P. Siry (University of Georgia) because of their invaluable scientific comments on the manuscript.