2015, Vol. 58
2 College of Geosciences, China University of Petroleum(Beijing), Beijing 102249, China;
3 State Kay Laboratory of Lithospheric Evolution, Institute of Geology and Geophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
The thermal history of a sedimentary basin refers to the thermal evolution of the basin in geological history; this may include the evolution of heat flow, the geothermal gradient, and the stratum temperature. Thermal history is vital to geodynamics and petroleum geology (Qiu, 2005), for the temperature is a driving force behind many geodynamic processes (Morgan, 1984; Wang, 1996). For instance, it affects the hydrocarbon accumulation process, especially the maturation of hydrocarbon source rocks and the history of hydrocarbon generation (Tissot and Welte, 1984; Tissot and Pelect, 1987; Qiu et al., 2004). The thermal history of a basin is usually reconstructed using various paleo-temperature indicators, including Ro, AFT, (U-Th)/He in apatite and zircon, reflectance of bitumen and vitrinite-like macerals, the hydrogen index, and fluid inclusions (Hu et al., 1998; Qiu et al., 2004; Qin et al., 2009a; 2009b). Ro and AFT are the most widely used indicators, and the related modeling methods are relatively well established. Recently, other indicators such as illite crystallinity (IC), Raman spectroscopy, and acoustic rock emissions have also been successfully studied and used in the quantitative reconstruction of paleo-temperatures (Xu et al., 2005; Wang et al., 2007; Qin et al., 2009a; 2009b; Li et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2013).
The marine basins in China’s mainland were formed in the Paleozoic era or even earlier and have experienced several periods of tectonic superposition and alteration. Because of this long-term, complex structuralthermal evolution, these basins have a multi-stage and complex thermal history. The continental basins lying above these marine basins have an entirely different thermal evolution, or thermal history, and thus require different methods and effective geothermal indicators to reconstruct their thermal history. In a superimposed basin composed of a continental and ocean basin (such as the representative Sichuan Basin and Tarim Basin), the Paleozoic marine strata are normally important source rock layers. These old strata contain very small quantities of vitrinite, apatite, and other conventional indicative components because they have experienced a high degree of thermal evolution. As a result, it has long been difficult to identify their maturity and reconstruct their thermal histories (Qin et al., 2009b). Thermal history reconstruction for superimposed basins requires diversified and complementary thermal history reconstruction systems (Hu et al., 2008) and, more importantly, effective geothermal indicators. The equivalence between different indicators also needs to be investigated to establish a set of geothermal indicators that applies to the reconstruction of multi-stage thermal history.
In this paper, the thermal history of the western Sichuan depression in the Sichuan Basin was reconstructed using three geothermal indicators: Ro, AFT and the IC index. The maximum paleo-temperatures reconstructed based on different indicators were compared. This research will help discover the equivalence between different geothermal indicators and establish a set of geothermal indicators for thermal history reconstruction.
2 GEOLOGICAL SETTINGLocated in the western part of Sichuan Basin, the western Sichuan depression (Fig. 1) is a foreland basin occupying an area of approximately 5×104 km2. It is bounded by the Longmen Mountain front buried fault to the west and the Longquan Mountain fault to the east (Chen et al., 2010). It evolved from a Paleozoic cratonic basin. Before the Indosinian orogeny in the late Triassic (T3), the western Sichuan region was at the western boundary of the upper Yangtze Cratonic basin, collectively forming a westward sloping continental platform composed of carbonate rock (Ma et al., 2009). As the Longmen Mountain and Daba Mountain orogenic belts developed during the Indosinian orogeny (Liu et al., 2009; Li et al., 2011), seawater levels regressed, and continental sedimentation initiated in this area. An ultra-thick Upper Triassic series composed primarily of lithic sandstone formed when voluminous clasts were deposited in the western Sichuan (Chen et al., 2011). After the Indosinian orogeny, the evolution of the foreland basin began. At present, there has been considerable research on the tectono-sedimentary evolution of the foreland basin (Liu et al., 1994; Liu et al., 1995; 2011; Guo et al., 1996; Tao, 1999; Liu et al., 2010; Li et al., 2011; Tian et al., 2013). Longmen Mountain has been thrust onto the western Sichuan depression several times since the Indosinian orogeny began, resulting in regional faults and the uplift and denudation of the basin margins. The Indian Plate then collided with the Eurasian Plate during the Himalayan orogeny, inducing more violent thrusting of Longmen Mountain. These structural events created the Longmen Mountain thrust belt and the foreland basin in western Sichuan (Wang et al., 1997; Zhao et al., 2011). The strata burial history and the rate of deposition and denudation of the borehole CY92 in the Yazihe area, western Sichuan depression shows the obvious and continuous uplift since~60 Ma (Fig. 2).
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Fig. 1 Geological sketch map and the stratigraphic column of the western Sichuan depression (modified from Zhao et al., 2011; Zhang et al., 2007) |
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Fig. 2 Strata burial history (a) and the rate of deposition and denudation of the borehole CY92 in the Yazihe area, western Sichuan depression |
The Yazihe area is a semi-anticline formed in the late Himalayan orogeny, constituting the lower footwall of the Guankou fault in the front of the middle Longmenshan nappe belt. It is located in the mid-south section of the southern Sichuan depression and is a northeast faulted anticline under the control of the Guankou and Pengxian faults (Zhu et al., 2001; Liu et al., 2002). The conditions of the source-reservoir-cap rock assemblage allow the petroleum systems in this area to be divided into two parts: the upper continental petroleum system in the upper Triassic to upper Jurassic series (T3-J3) and the lower marine petroleum system in the middle Triassic (T2) and the underlying strata (Zhang et al., 2007; Zhao et al., 2011). The boreholes in the Yazihe area, such as CY92 and CY95, were drilled in the upper continental petroleum system in T3-J3 (Fig. 1). In this upper system, the T3 coal-bearing strata, formed from coal, carbonaceous shale, gray to black mudstone, and silty mudstone, are rich in hydrocarbon source rocks. The lithostratigraphic units that are composed primarily of source rocks include the Ma’antang Formation, the Xiaotangzi Formation, and the third and fifth members of the Xujiahe Formation, where the dark mudstone layers total hundreds of meters in thickness. In addition, the reservoirs in the second and fourth members of the Xujiahe Formation also contain organic-rich layers of source rocks (Yang et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2010). The sediments of alluvial fans, river deltas, and lake deltas in the sandstone strata of the Xujiahe Formation and the Jurassic System contain the main reservoirs of the continental petroleum system. The cap rocks above the Upper Triassic reservoir rocks, constituted by the third and fifth members of the Xujiahe Formation, and the mudstone and shale of the Suining Formation in J3, show large thicknesses, high breakthrough pressures, and stability. The Cretaceous gypsum layers serve as the direct cap rocks above the Jurassic reservoir rocks (Wang et al., 2002).
3 GEOTHERMAL INDICATOR DATA AND THERMAL HISTORY RECONSTRUCTION 3.1 Thermal History Reconstruction Based on RoVitrinite is a type of maceral composed mainly of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. With increasing thermal maturity, the benzene rings in the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon molecules become more concentrated, and the vitrinite structure grows denser, resulting in higher vitrinite reflectance (Chen et al., 2007). Temperature and the duration of heating of the organic matter cause the evolution of Ro values; temperature is the dominant factor. The methods used in early paleo-temperature reconstruction research, i.e., charting (Hood and Guijahr, 1975; Cooper, 1977) and TTI fitting (Lopatin, 1971; Waples, 1980; Lerche et al., 1984), have been replaced by the new method of chemical kinetic modeling of kerogen pyrolysis, as a result of more research into the thermodynamic mechanisms of Ro evolution (Armagnel et al., 1989; Burnham et al., 1989, 1987; Braun and Burnham, 1987; David and Antia, 1986; Burnham and Sweeney, 1989; Sweeney and Burnham, 1990). Currently, the EASY Ro% model constructed by Sweeney and Burnham (1990) is widely used to reconstruct thermal history.
CY92 samples for Ro analysis were mostly collected from the Triassic system approximately 2000 to 5000 m deep. Their Ro values varied from 0.8% to 2.0%, indicating that the vitrinite reflectance increased with depth. Based on the EASY Ro% model, the maximum paleo-temperatures of CY92 were reconstructed using the paleotemperature gradient method (Duddy et al., 1988; Hu et al., 1998; Qiu et al., 2004). The results showed that the paleo-temperature gradient of this borehole was~26 ℃·km−1, the heat flow was~60 mW·m−2, and the thickness of removed sediments on the surface of the unconformity between the Upper Jurassic and the Cenozoic was approximately 1900 m. As Fig. 3 shows, the paleo-temperature gradient of this borehole was larger than its present temperature gradient (~22 ℃·km−1). This indicates that the area has undergone an overall, continuing structural-thermal evolution of cooling, uplifting, and denudation since the rock strata reached the maximum temperatures.
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Fig. 3 Ro data (a) and thermal history reconstruction of CY92 using the paleo-temperature gradient method (b); the rock thermal properties data refer to Xu et al. (2011) |
Research on the thermal histories of sedimentary basins has used low-temperature thermochronological methods to analyze the fission tracks and (U-Th)/He in minerals such as apatite and zircon. The annealing temperatures of fission tracks in apatite are between 60 and 120 ℃, which is basically consistent with the hydrocarbon generation temperature range of source rocks (Green et al., 1986; 1989). Moreover, AFT has connections with various geological processes occurring at a crustal depth of 3~5 km (Li et al., 2013) and is susceptible to annealing. All of these properties make AFT analysis an important technique for modeling the uplifting history of orogenic belts, the subsidence and erosion history of sedimentary basins, and the temperature history of hydrocarbon source rocks. Considerable research on the principles and modeling methods of low-temperature thermochronology has been conducted (Gleadow, 1981; Gleadow et al., 1983; Gleadow and Fitzgerald, 1987; Fitzgerald and Gleadow, 1990; Fitzgerald et al., 1993; Armstrong et al., 1997; Armstrong, 2005; Ketcham et al., 2007). The age and length (of a closed fission track) of AFT are the frequently used data in studies on paleo-temperature based on AFT analysis.
CY92 samples for AFT analysis were collected from the strata at 2000~4500 m in depth. In CY92-1 (at 2142 m), the central AFT age was 42.3±3.0 Ma, and the average track length was 11.76±0.26 µm. In CY92-3 (at 4474 m), the central AFT age was 4.3±0.6 Ma, and no track length data were obtained (Fig. 4). To model the thermal history of CY92-1, modeling of fission-track annealing in apatite (Ketcham et al., 2007) was performed with HeFty v1.7.4 software and random AFT inversion (Corrigan, 1991). The results revealed that the basin experienced subsidence between 220 and 140 Ma and a thermal quiet period between 145 and 80 Ma. Crustal uplift and erosion occurred in this area between 80 and 40 Ma. After another thermal quiet period from 40 to 2.5 Ma, the temperatures of the strata began to rise. By the late stage of heating, the temperature had increased by approximately 10 ℃. The contribution of the burial of sediment to the temperature increase can be ignored, as the Quaternary sediment was only 23.5 m thick. Therefore, the temperature increase reflected an increase of 5 ℃·km−1 in the geothermal gradient (and heat flow). According to the modeling results, CY92-1 reached a maximum paleo-temperature of approximately 115~120 ℃ when it was buried at a maximum depth.
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Fig. 4 AFT data of the samples of CY92 (a) and the radar map of AFT ages of CY92-1 (b) |
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Fig. 5 AFT thermal history modeling result of CY92-1 (a) and the fitting of AFT length distribution (10000 paths have been modeled using Monte Carlo method, GOF (age)=0.98; GOF (length)=0.95) |
The maximum paleo-thermal temperature profile of CY92 (with a corresponding geothermal gradient of~26 ℃·km−1) shows that the maximum depth was 4040 m, compared to its present depth of 2142 m. The thickness of the removed sediments was estimated to be~1900 m, which is generally consistent with the Ro analysis results.
3.3 Thermal History Reconstruction Based on the IC IndexIllite is one of the common clay minerals in sedimentary rocks, and authigenic illite crystals are an important product of the diagenesis and metamorphic evolution of sedimentary rocks. Because illite crystallinity is closely associated with degrees of diagenesis and metamorphism and increases with temperature, it can not only be used to research diagenesis and very low-grade metamorphism but also serve as a paleo-geothermometer to reconstruct thermal history (Wang et al., 2007; Zhu and Zhu, 2006; Bignall et al., 2001; Miller and Macdonald, 2004; Aldega et al., 2003; Di, 2003; Ji and Browne, 2000). The widely used Kbler index, which is negatively correlated with illite crystallinity, uses X-ray diffraction to denote illite crystallinity in international illite crystallinity studies. Crystallinity is determined by measuring the full width at half maximum for the 10 Å(001) diffraction reflection peak of illite (Kübler, 1964; 1967; 1968; Yang, 1993; Zhu, 1995; Wang et al., 2000; You et al., 2008).
To minimize the discrepancy in test results caused by different sample preparation procedures, equipment conditions, and test methods, the Kübler index data can be calibrated based on related international standards (Wang, 1998). This improves the comparability and reliability of the data. In accordance with related international standards, this paper’s data on the illite crystallinity of the samples from CY95 (Fig. 6) have been calibrated by the Petroleum Geology & Experiment Center of the Research Institute of Petroleum Exploration & Development (You et al., 2008). According to the linear fitting, the relationship between the Kübler index and depth can be described as a decreasing linear function: Y=−9168.76X + 9988.64.
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Fig. 6 KI data and the estimation of paleotemperature of CY92 |
Sedimentary rocks will undergo anchimetamorphism as a transition to epimetamorphism when the diagenesis ends. During this process, the rock tempe rature gradually rises, the illite crystallinity increases, and thus the Kübler index decreases. Some researchers have reported their findings regarding the relationship between crystallinity and the generation temperature of illite and the division of diagenesis to the very low-grade metamorphism process based on illite crystallinity. During the telodiagenesis stage (corresponding to the high-grade diagenetic zone), the KI for illite crystallinity varies from 1.0 to 0.42 (°∆2θ) and the temperature cap is 200 ℃ (when KI=0.42 (°∆2θ), T=~200 ℃). During burial metamorphism, the KI is between 0.25 and 0.42 (°∆2θ), and the temperature is between 200 and 300 ℃ (when KI=0.25(°∆2θ), T=~300 ℃). During epimetamorphism, which corresponds to the greenschist facies, the KI is smaller than 0.25 (°∆2θ), and the temperature is higher than 300 ℃ (Kübler, 1967; Arkai, 2002; Bi and Mo, 2004). While the application of illite crystallinity in low grade metamorphism studies is mature, the exact relationship between KI and temperature during diagenesis (KI > 0.42 (°∆2θ)) has not been determined. In light of the division of diagenesis in metamorphism processes (Arkai et al., 2002), the KI values of illite in CY95 and the maximum paleo-temperatures attained at different depths were estimated using the data in previous reports (KI=0.57 (°∆2θ), T=~141℃ (125~163 ℃) (Qin et al., 2009a); KI=0.56 (°∆2θ), T=156 ℃ (136~177 ℃) (Hu et al., 2012); KI=0.60~0.62 (°∆2θ), T=150 ℃ (Zhu and Zhu, 2006)). In CY95, at a depth of~4080 m, the KI was 0.60 (°∆2θ), and the maximum paleo-temperature was~150 ℃; at a depth of~6000 m, the KI was 0.42 (°∆2θ), and the maximum paleo-temperature was~200 ℃. The paleo-temperatures can be used to determine the maximum paleo-temperature profile of CY95 because the J3-T3 strata simultaneously reached the maximum paleo-temperatures before being uplifted and denudated.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONFigure 7 displays both the maximum paleo-temperature profile of CY92 that was reconstructed based on Ro and AFT, and the maximum paleo-temperature profile of CY95 that was reconstructed based on illite crystallinity. The maximum paleo-temperatures of CY92 reconstructed based on Ro and AFT were basically consistent, which demonstrates the strong comparability of the two widely used indicators. The maximum paleo-temperature profiles of CY92 and CY95 were nearly parallel, indicating similar geothermal gradients (~26 ℃·km−1) and paleo-heat flows (~60 mW·m−2) during their evolution. Moreover, this similarity corroborated the fact that the two adjacent boreholes were located in the same region and have similar geological settings due to similar structural and sedimentary evolutions (Liu et al., 2002).
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Fig. 7 Comparison of the paleo-temperature reconstruction between CY91 and CY95 |
Because no Ro data of this borehole could be obtained, rock pyrolysis data1) of cores in CY95 were used. As Type Ⅲ kerogen is the primary organic matter in the source rocks in the Upper Triassic and the Jurassic of western Sichuan, the Ro data of the borehole were estimated by referring to the chart of the Tmax-Ro relationship of Type Ⅲ source rocks. When the depths varied from 2200 to 3000 m, the source rock temperatures, Tmax, were between~480 and 500 ℃, and the estimation of Ro was in the about 1.2%~1.4% range; when the depths varied from 3300 to 4000 m, Tmax varied from~480 to 500 ℃, and the estimation of Ro was in the about 1.6%~1.8% range. The estimations of Ro at different depths were all slightly smaller than the corresponding Ro values of CY92 (Fig. 3), but the temperature values were consistent with the maximum paleo-temperatures of the borehole reconstructed based on illlite crystallinity.
1)The geological report on the completed CY95 in Yazihe area, Pengxian, Sichuan Province. The No.11 Prospecting and Exploration Team of Southwest Bureau of Petroleum Geology, Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources, 1985.
As shown in Fig. 7, the maximum paleo-temperature profiles of the two boreholes intersect with the line of depth=0 (namely, the earth’s surface) when T1=~72 ℃ and T2=~54 ℃, respectively. Given the geothermal gradient, ~26 ℃·km−1, a temperature difference of approximately 18° could indicate a difference of~690 m in the thickness of removed sediments. If this is combined with the result of AFT modeling, one can assume that the area being studied has undergone continuous cooling, uplift, and denudation since the Late Cretaceous, which resulted in a geothermal gradient reduction from about 26 ℃·km−1 to~22 ℃·km−1 and the removal of~1.3 to 1.9 km of sediments.
Estimating paleo-temperatures based on KI can yield relatively accurate results when applied to the burial metamorphism or epimetamorphism stage. However, though the KI-Ro relationship has been studied (Guthrie et al., 1986; Qin et al., 2009a; 2009b), the paleo-temperatures during diagenesis estimated with this method were unsatisfactory; the related formulas for temperature estimation using KI have been reported in related research:
 (Browne and Harvey, 1992),
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(1) |
 (Ji and Browne, 2000).
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(2) |
For example, the geothermal gradient calculated according to Formula (1) showed substantial differences from the data calculated using another geothermal indicator (Wang, 2004). In the Jiyang Depression, a Cenozoic graben basin, the present temperatures of the strata should be the maximum strata temperatures, and the paleo-temperature gradient of the basin should represent the present geothermal gradient. However, the result calculated using Formula (2), ~40 ℃·km−1 (Zhou, 2006; Jiang et al., 2008), was higher than the present geothermal gradient of~35 ℃·km−1 (Gong et al., 2003). According to the KI-Ro relationship established for the eastern Sichuan area (Qin et al., 2009a; 2009b), only a small fraction of KI data exceeded 0.42 (°∆2θ). As a result, KI=0.57(°∆2θ) deviates from the KI-Ro curve. Similar to the result of the paleo-temperature reconstruction based on Ro, the paleo-temperatures that were reconstructed based on illite crystallinity indicated that the KI data were associated with both the values and durations of maximum paleo-temperature (Qin et al., 2009b). However, differences were observed in the patterns of KI variations with temperature and time, which indicates that a particular formula for estimating temperature or an equivalent relationship cannot be applied to an area featuring a wider range of illite crystallinity. In this study, for example, when KI=0.25 was estimated according to the KI-depth relationship, the maximum paleo-temperature was not consistent with the maximum paleo-temperature profile of CY95 (Fig. 7). Research on the evolution of illite crystallinity during diagenesis is sparse compared to related research on low-grade metamorphism and the epimetamorphism process. Comparison is also difficult because research on the evolution of illite crystallinity during diagenesis usually has higher requirements for illite and test precision and often requires comparison of data from different laboratories. Further research is needed before studies can use illite crystallinity as a maturity indicator for organic matter during diagenesis.
5 CONCLUSIONS(1) There was high consistency between the paleo-temperatures of the western Sichuan depression that were reconstructed based on Ro, AFT, and KI. Thus, these three indicators can be used as paleo-temperature indicators for the thermal history reconstruction of the area.
(2) The study area has undergone a continual process of denudation and cooling since the Late Cretaceous, resulting in a geothermal gradient reduction from~26 ℃·km−1 to~22 ℃·km−1 and the removal of~1.3 to 1.9 km of sediment. Sedimentation occurred slowly or was suspended during a thermal quiet period from 145 to 80 Ma. From~80 Ma to 40 Ma, the surface of the area experienced continuous uplift and denudation, followed by another thermal quiet period until 2.5 Ma. Since~2.5 Ma, the geothermal gradient has risen by~5 ℃·km−1 due to heating.
(3) Unlike Ro and AFT, the illite crystallinity index is still controversial due to the lack of an effective thermal evolution model, and more research is therefore necessary before it can be used as a maturity and geothermal indicator for the thermal history reconstruction of sedimentary rocks.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSThis study was supported by the National Science Foundation of China (41102152), the PetroChina Innovation Foundation (2013D-5006-0102), the National Key Basic Research Development Plan of China (“973” Projects) (2012CB214703) and the Science Foundation of China University of Petroleum, Beijing (YJRC-2013-02).
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