海军军医大学学报  2024, Vol. 45 Issue (9): 1147-1155   PDF    
创伤后应激障碍与睡眠的关系
詹靖烨1Δ, 焦润达2Δ, 欧阳慧1, 刘伟志1, 吴荔荔1     
1. 海军军医大学(第二军医大学)心理系基础心理学教研室, PTSD 防护实验室, 上海 200433;
2. 中国人民解放军总医院研究生院, 北京 100853
摘要: 创伤后应激障碍(PTSD)是个体在经历创伤性事件后出现,以与事件相关的侵入性思维、回避、消极情绪和认知及警觉性增高为主要表现的心理障碍。睡眠障碍也被认为是PTSD的核心特征之一。以往的研究在一定程度上揭示了PTSD与睡眠障碍相关,但两者关联的生理机制尚不明确。本文概述了PTSD和睡眠障碍的临床及生理特征,在此基础上讨论了PTSD和睡眠障碍的双向关系,并进一步探讨了PTSD与睡眠障碍关系的相关生理机制和脑机制。未来的研究可以从与PTSD和睡眠共同相关的脑区及神经环路入手,探索PTSD与睡眠双向关系的神经生理机制,为PTSD和睡眠障碍的防治提供更多的信息与方法。
关键词: 创伤后应激障碍    睡眠障碍    双向关系    机制    
Relationship between post-traumatic stress disorder and sleep
ZHAN Jingye1Δ, JIAO Runda2Δ, OUYANG Hui1, LIU Weizhi1, WU Lili1     
1. Department of Basic Psychology, Lab for Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, Faculty of Psychology, Naval Medical University (Second Military Medical University), Shanghai 200433, China;
2. Graduate School, PLA General Hospital, Beijing 100853, China
Abstract: Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), with the principal manifestations as invasive thinking, avoidance, negative emotions and cognition, and increased alertness, is a psychological disorder occurring after traumatic events. Sleep disorders are also considered as one of the core characteristics of PTSD. Previous studies have partly revealed the relationship between PTSD and sleep disorders, but the physiological mechanism of the relationship is still unclear. This article provides an overview of the clinical and physiological characteristics of PTSD and sleep disorders. Based on this, the bidirectional relationship between PTSD and sleep disorders is discussed, and the relevant physiological and brain mechanisms of the relationship between them are further explored. Future research needs to explore the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the bidirectional relationship between PTSD and sleep by exploring the brain regions and neural circuits associated with both PTSD and sleep, providing more information and methods for the prevention and treatment of PTSD and sleep disorders.
Key words: post-traumatic stress disorder    sleep disorder    bidirectional relationship    mechanism    

创伤后应激障碍(post-traumatic stress disorder,PTSD)是指由经历或目睹异乎寻常的威胁性、灾难性创伤事件引起的延迟出现和长期持续存在的心理障碍,是个体经历创伤性事件后最常见的心理障碍。它的特点包括与事件相关的侵入性思维,对相关事件的回避、消极情绪和认知,以及持续的警觉性增高和惊恐反应,其病程可达数月乃至数年之久。美国普通人群中PTSD的终生患病率为3.4%~26.9%[1]。我国有关精神障碍的流行病学研究显示,PTSD的12个月患病率为0.2%,终生患病率为0.4%[2]。在新型冠状病毒感染疫情期间,国内PTSD患病率为4.6%[3]。另外,相较于普通人群,经历自然灾害的群体PTSD的患病率明显更高[4]。PTSD对个体的身心健康和社会功能等都会造成长期的不良影响[5],因此,对PTSD及其影响因素的研究十分必要。

睡眠是非常重要的生理过程,它与生理和心理健康关系密切,可能会导致认知、情绪和代谢等一系列功能受到影响[6-7]。普通人群出现睡眠障碍的比例超过30%,其中最常见的失眠症的患病率为10%~55%[8-10]。在新型冠状病毒感染大流行时期,住院患者的睡眠障碍发生率为33.3%~84.7%,出院幸存者的睡眠障碍发生率为29.5%~40%,医护人员的睡眠障碍发生率为18.4%~84.7%,而一般人群的睡眠障碍发生率为17.5%~81%,显著高于平常时期的睡眠障碍发生率,表明类似的突发公共卫生事件对人群的睡眠可能产生不利影响[11]。睡眠障碍往往并非单独存在,它常与多种精神疾病共病,或作为这些疾病的危险因素存在,如焦虑障碍、抑郁症和PTSD等。由于PTSD和睡眠障碍在一些症状上的相关性,两者的关系一直备受关注。了解PTSD和睡眠障碍的特征及两者的关系,对于深入探讨PTSD和睡眠障碍的发病机制、开发新的预防和治疗措施具有重要意义。

1 PTSD的睡眠相关症状

PTSD主要包含4个核心症状群:(1)创伤性事件的侵入,即创伤性事件反复、非自愿地重现(如闪回),或反复做与创伤性事件相关的痛苦的梦;(2)对创伤事件的回避,包括回避与创伤性事件有关的痛苦记忆、思想、感觉或与这些记忆相关的外部提示;(3)认知和心境方面的负性改变,包括对自己、他人或世界的负性信念和预期,持续性的消极情绪,对活动的兴趣减退;(4)警觉性增高和过度觉醒,包括容易受到惊吓或激怒,过度警觉,以及注意力和睡眠障碍。另外,PTSD伴分离症状的个体可能持续或反复地体验到自己的精神过程或躯体脱离感及环境的不真实感(如感觉周围的世界是虚幻的或扭曲的)。睡眠障碍是PTSD患者最基本和最持久的特征,被认为是PTSD的标志[12]。睡眠问题也已经被美国精神病学协会纳入PTSD的症状标准。PTSD患者主观睡眠障碍(如入睡困难、睡眠时间减少等)的患病率超过70%,明显高于普通人群[13]。一项对2 627名美国成年人的研究结果显示,92%符合《精神类疾病诊断和统计手册》第5版诊断标准的PTSD患者表现出至少一种睡眠障碍,如失眠和噩梦[14]

1.1 PTSD患者的主观睡眠

大量研究结果显示,与健康人群相比,PTSD患者的睡眠效率降低[15],总睡眠时间减少[16-17],而入睡潜伏期延长[18]。但也有研究显示,PTSD患者总睡眠时间的减少可能与性别有关,仅有男性样本显示出总睡眠时间减少的结果[19]。同时,PTSD患者出现更多有关睡眠维持的问题,包括睡眠过程中觉醒次数和觉醒时间的增加[15, 20]。与军人相关的研究也显示出了相似的结果,相比于未患PTSD的退伍军人,患有PTSD的退伍军人更容易出现睡眠障碍,包括睡眠质量下降、总睡眠时间减少和入睡潜伏期延长等问题[21-22]。但一项针对患有PTSD的退伍军人的研究发现,无论是夜间醒来次数、躺在床上的总时间还是睡眠中的觉醒时间,在PTSD和非PTSD被试之间均没有差异[23]。一项meta分析结果也显示,PTSD患者与非PTSD患者的总睡眠时间、入睡潜伏期、睡眠过程中的觉醒和睡眠效率差异均无统计学意义[13]。上述结果表明,PTSD患者对自我睡眠的感知可能存在消极的认知偏见,特别是对跨度较长的回顾性数据可能更容易产生偏差。因此,为了更准确地评估PTSD患者的睡眠参数,研究时可以更多地采用主观和客观睡眠评估相结合的方式。

1.2 PTSD患者的客观睡眠

PTSD患者的睡眠结构与健康人群也存在差异,包括慢波睡眠持续时间和所占百分比减少、快速眼动(rapid eye movement,REM)睡眠发生改变等[19, 24-26]。研究显示,PTSD患者REM睡眠所占百分比和持续时间减少,而REM睡眠潜伏期和REM密度增加[15, 19-20]

但相关的研究结果仍然存在一定程度的不一致性。有研究发现,PTSD患者REM睡眠所占百分比增加[27],且患者的PTSD持续时间与REM睡眠所占百分比、REM持续时间呈正相关,与REM睡眠潜伏期呈负相关[28]。Richards等[29]发现PTSD患者REM睡眠持续时间可能与性别相关,女性PTSD患者的REM睡眠持续时间增加,男性PTSD患者则未显示出这样的特征。对地震相关的PTSD患者调查结果显示,通过多导睡眠监测没有发现PTSD患者有明显的夜间睡眠障碍[30]

有关PTSD患者的神经成像研究显示,在非快速眼动(non-rapid eye movement,NREM)时期,PTSD患者的脑电波在右额叶皮质和中心-顶叶区域显示出最低频带向更高频带转移的现象,这种变化的出现可能与失眠症状有关[31]。而在REM时期,PTSD患者则表现为枕叶区的脑电波低频率活动增加,这种变化与噩梦密切相关[32]。对PTSD患者睡眠期间纺锤波的相关研究发现,与非PTSD组相比,PTSD组在额叶和中心-顶叶通道之间的慢纺锤波中显示出更小的平均相位差(mean phase difference,MPD),这种通道间相位差的减少可能反映了PTSD患者丘脑皮质回路的病理变化[33];同时,PTSD患者表现出前额叶区域的慢纺锤波及中心-顶叶区域的快纺锤波振荡频率更高的现象,这可能表明PTSD患者维持睡眠连续性的感觉门控机制不足[34]。另外有研究发现,患有PTSD的老兵在REM睡眠期间,大脑中涉及唤醒调节、恐惧反应和奖励处理的区域(如杏仁核、海马、左右蓝斑核、基底神经节和丘脑区域)持续存在高代谢[35]。这些结果表明,PTSD患者在睡眠期间,大脑皮质和皮质下区域都存在过度觉醒的现象。

除此之外,PTSD还会引发一些其他的睡眠障碍[36-37]。例如,PTSD患者患阻塞性睡眠呼吸暂停(obstructive sleep apnea,OSA)和周期性肢体运动障碍(periodic limb movement disorder,PLMD)的风险较健康人群更高[38-39]。另外,PTSD患者在睡眠期间的身体运动可能发生变化,有研究结果显示,PTSD患者睡眠期间身体运动(如周期性的腿部运动)比健康对照组增加[37]。但相关的研究结果并不统一,也有研究结果显示PTSD患者睡眠期间的身体运动减少[40]

基于个体在经历创伤后出现的独特睡眠症状,Mysliwiec等[36, 41]提出了一个新的诊断术语——创伤相关睡眠障碍(trauma associated sleep disorder,TSD)。TSD在创伤经历后出现,典型特征包括破坏性的夜间行为,如异常发声(尖叫或大叫)、睡眠中的异常运动(翻来覆去或梦游)、恐慌性惊醒,以及在REM和NREM睡眠中出现的做梦行为。这些睡眠症状可能代表了个体在创伤早期的睡眠反应形式,并将在后期发展为更典型的睡眠障碍表现(例如失眠和噩梦)。

1.3 PTSD中的噩梦

噩梦是PTSD患者的一个独特特征,约有50%~70%的PTSD患者经常遭受噩梦的困扰[42-43]。大量研究普遍认为,PTSD患者的噩梦发生率明显高于普通人群和其他精神病患者[44-45]。另外,PTSD患者的噩梦发生率与性别有关,研究发现女性在遭遇创伤后的噩梦发生率高于男性[46]。近期创伤患者的噩梦发生率比慢性PTSD患者更高[47]。梦一般出现在REM期,具有重要的生理和心理功能[36]。创伤噩梦则是由REM期正常的情绪处理和巩固功能中断造成的[48]。PTSD患者的噩梦,特别是与创伤相关的噩梦,会对他们的PTSD症状造成不利影响,这是因为噩梦可以被创伤经历、早期童年逆境和潜在的睡眠呼吸障碍所促进[49]。同时,噩梦又会反过来导致对睡眠的恐惧和回避,这些因素会改变与睡眠有关的行为并最终加重失眠的症状,形成恶性循环。目前已有研究表明,PTSD和创伤后噩梦之间存在一种共同的病理生理学机制,表现为对惊吓音调的心率反应增强[50],这可能反映了副交感神经张力的减弱,也可以解释PTSD与创伤后噩梦的关系如此密切的原因。

2 PTSD与睡眠的双向关系 2.1 睡眠对PTSD的影响

睡眠障碍是PTSD发展的重要预测因素,创伤前和创伤后不久的睡眠障碍都会增加PTSD的风险[51-52]。有研究表明,PTSD严重程度的增加与睡眠效率和慢波睡眠所占百分比的降低相关[15]。创伤前失眠和噩梦都预示着随后的PTSD[53]。一项针对车祸幸存者的研究也发现,不论是否患有PTSD,参与者在事故发生后1周均报告了相似的睡眠障碍,但只有那些继续发展为PTSD的参与者在事故发生后数月内报告了持续的睡眠障碍[54],这一发现表明创伤后持续的睡眠障碍可能与PTSD的发展有关。对睡眠的恐惧也会通过与恐惧相关的觉醒和适应不良、睡眠干扰行为维持创伤性失眠,在创伤性失眠的发展和维持中起着重要作用,而创伤性失眠是PTSD的典型症状[55]。对睡眠的恐惧越强,总睡眠时间越短,PTSD症状也就越严重[56]。一些与军人相关的研究也得到了相似的结果,在退伍军人中,部署前的睡眠问题与部署后患PTSD的可能性增加有关[57],并能预测部署后2年的PTSD[58]。此外,有关PTSD治疗的研究也发现,在针对PTSD的认知行为治疗后,大量患者仍存在残余的睡眠问题,这些问题可能导致治疗后的PTSD症状加重或症状缓解的可能性降低[59-60],而针对PTSD患者失眠、噩梦或OSA的干预则能改善患者的睡眠质量并改善日间PTSD症状[61-62]。1例经常出现创伤相关噩梦的PTSD患者的病例报告也显示,通过训练减少噩梦的频率后,心理评估结果也有所好转[63]。因此,在PTSD患者的治疗中,应该对睡眠尤其是噩梦给予更多的关注。

睡眠障碍也被认为是各种心理过程与PTSD症状之间联系的中介。有研究表明,睡眠障碍在住院患者的PTSD和自杀意念之间起着中介作用[64]。在退伍军人中,自我报告的睡眠障碍介导了反刍(对消极经历的反复思考)和PTSD症状之间的联系[65]。一项与PTSD相关的脑研究也发现,睡眠的变化介导了PTSD与海马体积之间的关系[66]。上述研究结果表明,一些因素会增加PTSD发生的可能性或加重PTSD的严重程度,而睡眠障碍可能会使这些因素的影响变大。

2.2 PTSD对睡眠的影响

PTSD症状在一定程度上也可能预测随后的睡眠障碍。一项对PTSD和失眠症状的生态瞬时评估研究表明,在控制基线PTSD症状的情况下,白天的焦虑也预示了较差的睡眠质量和效率,同时白天的PTSD症状和对睡眠的恐惧预示着随后的噩梦[67]。此外,人际关系性质的潜在创伤事件(potentially traumatic event,PTE)是睡眠问题的重要预测因子,而PTSD介导了人际关系性质的PTE暴露与睡眠问题之间的关系[68],因此,治疗PTSD症状也可以改善睡眠。如果将PTSD症状分为不同症状群和亚型,PTSD的解离症状与睡眠障碍、OSA和睡眠碎片化等睡眠生理指标直接相关[69]。但现有的相关研究仍比较少,还需要进一步研究探索PTSD不同症状群与睡眠障碍的关系。

3 PTSD与睡眠双向关系的相关机制 3.1 PTSD与睡眠相关的心理生理学模型

虽然现有的研究表明睡眠障碍和PTSD相互影响,但具体机制尚不清楚。对于PTSD患者来说,创伤性事件是一种典型的、严重的失眠诱发因素[12],因此可以通过失眠的心理生理学模型来为PTSD与睡眠障碍的双向机制提供线索。

失眠的素质-应激模型(diathesis-stress model)指出,失眠的发病机制中有3个相互关联的因素:内部诱发因素(predisposing factor)、外部诱发因素(precipitating factor)和持续因素(perpetuating factor)[70-71]。内部诱发因素主要指个体的遗传、生理或心理特征(如性别、影响觉醒调节或认知的遗传多态性),这些特征导致个体失眠易感性的不同。外部诱发因素主要指生理、环境或心理上的压力源,包括物理伤害、工作压力或创伤性压力源等。持续因素指应对睡眠中断的不良策略,包括在周末睡懒觉、白天小睡等弥补夜间睡眠不足的行为,如果持续使用这些不良策略,可能会导致慢性失眠。

失眠的认知模型关注可能干扰睡眠并导致不良应对行为的想法[72]。该模型认为,患有失眠的人往往过于担心自己的睡眠或睡眠不足的后果,这种过度的负面认知会触发自主觉醒和情绪困扰,并引发对内部和外部的睡眠相关威胁线索的选择性注意和监控,使个体高估感知到的睡眠和白天表现不足的程度。这些过度的忧虑和反思会导致觉醒和痛苦,最终导致持续的失眠症状。

失眠的过度唤醒模型(hyperarousal model)则将上述模型结合起来,同时强调遗传和生理脆弱性对睡眠/ 觉醒调节问题以及生理和认知水平上过度唤醒的基本贡献。该模型将失眠概念化为一种心理生物学障碍,认为失眠不仅与心理层面的改变有关,还与神经内分泌和神经免疫学变量的可测量偏差以及大脑的电生理和神经生理学的结构与功能改变有关。

对失眠的研究证明,生物学特征、生活事件和不良的应对行为之间存在相互作用并导致认知和生理上的过度唤醒,使睡眠障碍不断持续下去。对于PTSD患者来说,在夜间产生的与创伤相关的心理困扰(如与创伤相关的回忆、噩梦中的惊醒)等都可能导致睡眠环境中的唤醒。另外,弥补夜间睡眠不足的补偿行为(如小睡)也会导致睡眠时间不当,从而导致睡眠环境中的唤醒,进而引起睡眠障碍的恶性循环。

3.2 情绪调节和记忆巩固在PTSD与睡眠关系中的作用

情绪调节和记忆巩固可能在PTSD和睡眠障碍发病机制中起作用。一方面,睡眠障碍会对认知功能产生有害影响,从而降低人体调节情绪的能力,使PTSD症状持续或加重;另一方面,睡眠在情绪调节和记忆巩固中具有重要作用[73]。一般认为情绪记忆主要发生在REM期,而记忆巩固发生在慢波睡眠中[74]。睡眠障碍破坏了这些在睡眠中进行的记忆过程,从而促进或维持焦虑和恐惧情绪,对PTSD症状造成不利影响。而PTSD患者由于REM期记忆障碍阻碍了消退记忆的巩固,导致消退记忆无法持续和泛化[75],并反馈到睡眠障碍的恶性循环中。一项脑研究也证明了这一点,该研究发现匹兹堡睡眠质量指数和PTSD量表得分与左基底外侧杏仁核-左内侧前额叶皮质、右基底外侧杏仁核-右内侧前额叶皮质之间的静息状态功能连接呈负相关[76],而杏仁核在情绪识别和调节、学习和记忆中起着重要作用,这表明情绪调节和记忆巩固在PTSD和睡眠障碍的关系中扮演着重要角色。

3.3 神经调节通路在PTSD与睡眠关系中的作用

PTSD与睡眠障碍共享的神经调节通路也可能是两者关系的基础。蓝斑核是睡眠-觉醒和PTSD相关环路的一部分,过度活跃时可释放去甲肾上腺素,在产生PTSD和睡眠障碍的典型高觉醒症状中起着重要作用。下丘脑-垂体-肾上腺轴(hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis,HPA)和促肾上腺皮质激素释放激素(corticotropin releasing hormone,CRH)的变化也会引起睡眠的改变。研究表明,睡眠紊乱的特征是由应激相关的CRH、HPA和糖皮质激素信号转导通路的改变导致的δ睡眠减少[77-78]。另外一些神经调节剂,如促食欲素、多巴胺和γ-氨基丁酸等,也在PTSD与睡眠障碍的关系中发挥了重要作用。

4 小结与展望

临床和流行病学研究表明,PTSD与睡眠障碍高度相关。大部分研究结果显示,PTSD患者出现睡眠效率降低、总睡眠时间缩短、入睡潜伏期延长、NREM睡眠增加、慢波睡眠减少、REM密度增加等现象,并表现出睡眠期间大脑皮质过度兴奋的特点。但也有研究结果显示,PTSD和非PTSD患者的总睡眠时间和入睡潜伏期等不存在显著差异。由于PTSD患者对自我睡眠的感知可能存在消极的认知偏见,同时在睡眠评估中常用的活动记录仪可能无法捕捉到PTSD患者特定的睡眠参数(如睡眠潜伏期),未来的研究有必要进行主观和客观睡眠评估的结合,对现有数据进行更复杂的分析,这有利于更精准地对PTSD患者的睡眠进行评估,并能更好地理解PTSD患者的睡眠障碍及睡眠中的过度唤醒。

PTSD与睡眠障碍之间存在双向关系。PTSD患者白天的PTSD症状能在一定程度上预测夜晚的睡眠问题和噩梦,同时PTSD症状严重程度的增加与睡眠障碍的增加有关,且创伤前后的睡眠问题可能会影响之后PTSD的发展。但目前大部分探讨PTSD与睡眠障碍关系的研究着眼于总的PTSD症状,而未区分PTSD不同的症状群。部分研究证明PTSD的解离症状与睡眠问题相关,但还需进一步的研究来揭示PTSD的解离症状与哪些睡眠障碍有关以及PTSD不同症状群与睡眠障碍的关系。

PTSD治疗后残留的睡眠障碍可能会影响患者的康复过程,而在治疗PTSD时解决睡眠问题对改善患者的PTSD症状有所帮助。这些发现表明,睡眠障碍在PTSD的发展和治疗中发挥着关键作用,在治疗PTSD时需要关注对睡眠障碍的干预。未来的研究可以进一步探究如何对PTSD患者的睡眠问题进行干预和治疗而达到改善患者PTSD症状的目的。另外,健康的睡眠可能是预防PTSD的保护性因素,未来的研究也可以关注健康的睡眠是否能预防PTSD以及如何预防PTSD。

现有的研究已经明确了PTSD与睡眠之间的双向关系,但两者的发展和维持之间的具体机制仍不完全清楚。部分研究表明杏仁核、蓝斑核等脑区和相关的神经环路可能在PTSD与睡眠双向关系的机制中起作用,未来的研究可以从与PTSD和睡眠共同相关的脑区及神经环路入手,进一步探索PTSD与睡眠双向关系的神经生理机制,为PTSD的有效治疗提供更多的信息和方法。

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