海军军医大学学报  2023, Vol. 44 Issue (3): 335-341   PDF    
早期子宫内膜癌腹腔镜手术的安全性思考
王志明, 闻笔伟, 刘胜楠, 徐明娟     
海军军医大学(第二军医大学)第一附属医院妇产科, 上海 200433
摘要: 近年来,随着微创技术的发展和成熟,腹腔镜和机器人手术在临床上得到了越来越广泛的应用,多项权威指南推荐微创手术为早期子宫内膜癌的标准手术方式。既往多项随机对照研究均证实了腹腔镜手术的有效性和安全性,但子宫颈癌腹腔镜手术路径研究结果显示,早期子宫颈癌患者微创手术的总生存率低于开腹手术,引发了关于腹腔镜手术安全性的广泛争议。本文回顾大量国内外文献,对子宫内膜癌腹腔镜手术的研究进展和安全性展开综述,以期为临床和科研工作提供参考。
关键词: 子宫内膜肿瘤    腹腔镜手术    微创手术    安全性    
Safety consideration of laparoscopic surgery for early-stage endometrial cancer
WANG Zhi-ming, WEN Bi-wei, LIU Sheng-nan, XU Ming-juan     
Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Naval Medical University (Second Military Medical University), Shanghai 200433, China
Abstract: In recent years, with the development and maturation of minimally invasive techniques, laparoscopic and robotic surgery has been increasingly used in clinical practice, and several authoritative guidelines recommend minimally invasive surgery as a standard surgical approach for early-stage endometrial cancer. Several previous randomized controlled trials have confirmed the effectiveness and safety of laparoscopic surgery, but the results of the Laparoscopic Approach to Cervical Cancer Trial showed that the overall survival rate of patients with early-stage cervical cancer was lower than that of open surgery, which has triggered extensive controversies on the safety of laparoscopic surgery. Therefore, this article reviews a large amount of domestic and international literatures and presents a review of the research progress and safety of laparoscopic surgery for endometrial cancer, intending to provide a reference for clinical and scientific work.
Key words: endometrial neoplasms    laparoscopic operation    minimally invasive surgery    safety    

子宫内膜癌是全球女性第六大常见癌症,也是我国女性第二大常见的妇科恶性肿瘤,其发病率在全球范围内呈上升趋势[1],部分原因是它与肥胖和2型糖尿病有关,而肥胖和2型糖尿病的发病率正在上升[2]。如果早期诊断,则患者预后良好。总体而言,子宫内膜癌患者的5年生存率为75.6%,从Ⅰ期的92.2%到Ⅳ期的15.1%不等[3]。早期子宫内膜癌手术多采用腹腔镜方式,近年来,子宫颈癌腹腔镜手术路径研究(Laparoscopic Approach to Cervical Cancer,LACC)对腹腔镜手术的安全性提出质疑,引发了深入思考。本文综合国内外研究,对早期子宫内膜癌腹腔镜手术的安全性展开综述。

1 早期子宫内膜癌的腹腔镜手术发展

在1987年,腹腔镜作为宫颈癌阴式入路的术前评估工具被引入妇科手术[4]。1989年,Reich等[5]成功完成了世界首例腹腔镜下全子宫切除术。1992年,Nezhat等[6]开展了盆腔及腹主动脉旁淋巴结清扫术和腹腔镜下根治性子宫切除术来治疗宫颈癌;1993年,Childers等[7]报道了应用腹腔镜行盆腔及腹主动脉旁淋巴结清扫术对59例Ⅰ期子宫内膜癌患者的治疗,结果发现就术中并发症发生情况而言,腹腔镜技术是一种可行的手术方式。

与开腹手术相比,腹腔镜手术具有手术切口小、视野清晰、术中及术后并发症少、术后恢复快等优点。自进入21世纪起,随着腹腔镜设备的不断改善、微创技术的进步和经验的成熟,对早期子宫内膜癌患者进行全子宫、双附件切除和淋巴结清扫的术式越来越趋向于微创[8]

美国国立综合癌症网络(National Comprehensive Cancer Network,NCCN)指南将子宫内膜癌分为3类进行治疗:第1类是病灶局限于子宫体;第2类是疑似或明显宫颈受累;第3类是疑似宫外受累。大多数子宫内膜癌患者在症状出现时多为国际妇产科联盟(International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics,FIGO)分期中的Ⅰ期,对于可以接受手术治疗的患者,首选手术。手术可采用经腹、经阴道、腹腔镜、机器人等方式,对于肿瘤明显局限于子宫体的患者,NCCN指南推荐采取微创方式;而对于第2类和第3类患者,如果宫颈或宫外受累证据不足,相应的病理学、影像学或实验室检查的结果阴性,则同样建议采取微创手术[9]。随机对照试验、系统综述和基于人群的外科研究均认为微创方式是病灶局限于子宫体患者的首选手术方式,因为输血量减少,手术部位感染率和静脉血栓栓塞率更低,住院时间和护理成本降低,而复发率和生存率无差异[9]

2 腹腔镜宫颈癌手术的争议

宫颈癌根治性子宫切除术可以通过微创(机器人或腹腔镜)或开腹入路进行[10]。自1991年腹腔镜技术应用于宫颈癌治疗后[11],多项回顾性研究报道了微创手术的可行性、优势和肿瘤学安全性[12-14]。然而,2018年10月同期发表在《新英格兰医学杂志》上的LACC试验和一项真实世界研究,对宫颈癌微创手术的肿瘤学安全性提出了疑问[15-16]

LACC试验比较了早期宫颈癌的微创和开腹手术,结果显示微创手术的肿瘤学结局劣于开腹手术,与开腹手术相比,微创手术的4.5年无病生存率(86.0% vs 96.5%)和3年总生存率(93.8% vs 99.0%)均较低[15]。与LACC试验类似,基于美国国家癌症数据库和美国国立癌症研究所数据库的真实世界研究显示,微创手术的4年死亡率为9.1%,开腹手术的为5.3%,并且自2006年美国微创手术占比开始增加后的4年间,宫颈癌患者相对生存率以每年降低0.8%的速度下降[16]。随后,多项回顾性研究证实了LACC试验的结论[17-19],导致NCCN、欧洲妇科肿瘤学会和欧洲肿瘤内科学会等多个权威协会更改了指南意见,认为开腹手术仍应是宫颈癌的首选手术路径[20-22]

Ramirez等[15]在文章中提到,LACC试验的初衷是想证明就无病生存率而言,微创手术并不比开腹手术差,而研究结果却恰恰相反,对此作者也提出了一些可能的原因。微创手术与开腹手术的3个最明显不同之处是建立气腹、举宫器的常规使用、腹腔内离断阴道的方式,这可能会导致手术操作同时肿瘤扩散到阴道和盆腹腔等部位,从而影响患者的预后[15, 23-24]

3 早期子宫内膜癌腹腔镜手术的安全性

2018年的两项宫颈癌研究结果显示微创手术后宫颈癌患者的生存率低于开腹手术[15-16],这在世界范围内引起了关于宫颈癌手术方式的巨大争议。对于其他肿瘤,行微创手术的结局如何呢?临床随机对照研究显示,在早期子宫内膜癌、结直肠癌或胃癌中微创手术的存活率与开腹手术相似[25-29]

对于大多数子宫内膜癌患者,微创手术分期是首选的手术方法。早期子宫内膜癌是指FIGO分期为Ⅰ~Ⅱ,手术范围包括筋膜外全子宫、双附件切除和淋巴结评估。对于高危亚型,可考虑增加腹膜活检、大网膜切除以及腹主动脉旁淋巴结清扫。随机对照研究表明,对于可接受手术治疗的子宫内膜癌患者,与开腹手术相比,腹腔镜手术组围手术期并发症减少,生活质量提高[25-26, 30-32]。目前为止,国内的前瞻性研究仅有1项,北京朝阳医院2000年至2010年间入组272例子宫内膜癌(Ⅰ~Ⅱ期260例,Ⅲ期12例)患者开展的前瞻性研究结果显示,与开腹手术相比,腹腔镜组住院时间显著减少(3 d vs 6 d,P<0.05),总生存率(94% vs 90.1%)和5年生存率(96% vs 91%)在两组间差异无统计学意义[33]

近年来国外腹腔镜、开腹手术分期对比研究(Laparoscopy Versus Laparotomy for Surgical Staging Study,LAP2)和子宫内膜癌腹腔镜手术研究(laparoscopic approach to cancer of the endometrium,LACE)两项多中心随机对照试验表明,与传统的开放手术相比,腹腔镜手术可以改善围手术期结局和短期生活质量,而不影响子宫内膜癌患者的安全[9, 25, 30, 32]。美国妇科肿瘤学组的LAP2试验招募了2 616例Ⅰ~ⅡA期子宫内膜癌患者,是首个比较腹腔镜和开腹手术的随机试验。虽然中转开腹率高达25.8%,但是与开腹组相比,腹腔镜组术后不良事件减少(14% vs 21%,P<0.01),2 d以上的住院时间明显减少(52% vs 94%,P<0.01)[30]。在澳大利亚、新西兰和香港开展的LACE试验纳入了332例Ⅰ期子宫内膜癌患者,同样发现腹腔镜组的术后严重不良事件的发生率低与开腹组(19.0% vs 7.9%,P=0.002)[32]。这两项研究都报道了腹腔镜组术后短期生活质量更高。

比较不同手术方式时,尽管围手术期的结局很重要,但在肿瘤治疗过程中必须确认长期预后没有差异。2012年,LAP2研究的随访数据显示,腹腔镜组和开腹组的5年总生存率均为89.8%;两组间的复发率略有差异(腹腔镜组11.4% vs开腹组10.2%),腹腔镜组的风险比为1.14[25]。这项研究为非劣效性试验,其风险比的95% CI未达到其预先设定的非劣效性标准,差异无统计学意义,该研究支持了子宫内膜癌患者行腹腔镜手术的安全性。Walker等[25]认为,与开腹手术相比,腹腔镜手术增加肿瘤复发风险的可能性很小。LAP2试验的一项事后分析评估了包括低分化子宫内膜样腺癌、浆液性癌、透明细胞癌和癌肉瘤在内的753例早期低分化子宫内膜癌患者,发现手术方式不影响复发率和生存率[34]。2017年,LACE试验的长期结果发表于《美国医学会杂志》。在这项研究中,共招募760例Ⅰ期患者,结果表明腹腔镜和开腹手术的4.5年无病生存率(81.6% vs 81.3%)和4.5年总生存率(92.0% vs 92.4%)相当,推荐临床Ⅰ期子宫内膜癌患者可考虑微创手术[26]

在LAP2和LACE试验中没有包括机器人手术,其实机器人系统克服了传统腹腔镜手术器械的一些局限性,并显著提高了微创手术应用率,也是一种腹腔镜器械。比较微创手术与开腹手术的结局时应将机器人包括进去评估[35-36]

4 早期子宫内膜癌腹腔镜手术的争议及策略

LACC研究发表后,许多国内外专家回顾现有文献证据并经过深入讨论,均认为无瘤原则和无瘤操作在手术过程中至关重要[37-40]。Kanao等[41]提出了术中肿瘤溢漏的概念,是指在手术过程中肿瘤细胞暴露于病灶以外的无瘤区域,并可能导致肿瘤播散和转移。肿瘤溢漏对存活率的影响已经在包括妇科肿瘤在内的各种恶性肿瘤中得到了广泛的研究。在Ⅰ期卵巢癌中,术中肿瘤溢漏被认为是与存活率下降相关的预后因素[42-43],因此被纳入到当前的癌症分期(ⅠC期)中。

对于早期子宫内膜癌而言,腹腔镜手术是否也会导致肿瘤细胞暴露?有学者认为,可能是由于病灶位置及与举宫器的接触程度不同,导致了子宫内膜癌和宫颈癌患者的预后差异[23]。通过对现有文献的回顾发现,与宫颈癌腹腔镜手术类似,可能导致肿瘤溢漏的操作步骤同样存在于子宫内膜癌手术中:举宫器的置入和对子宫的挤压可能会导致肿瘤破碎和播散种植,腹腔内离断阴道及其可能会导致的肿瘤暴露在CO2气腹中,并扩散至盆腹腔,影响到患者的预后。下面就这3个因素进行讨论。

4.1 举宫器的使用

对于子宫内膜癌术中举宫器的使用,目前的证据基本来自于回顾性研究和meta分析,这些研究结果并未提示子宫内膜癌患者腹腔细胞冲洗液阳性、淋巴脉管间隙浸润或肿瘤复发的风险增加[44-48]。然而,最近的一项纳入2 661例Ⅰ~Ⅱ期子宫内膜癌的多中心回顾性研究表明,与不使用举宫器的患者相比,使用举宫器患者的复发率更高(11.69% vs 7.4%,P<0.001)[49],这对举宫器应用于子宫内膜癌微创手术的安全性提出了置疑。

举宫器能协助术者操作,在妇科良性疾病手术中被广泛应用[50]。对于早期子宫内膜癌,举宫器的应用有助于肥胖患者的术野暴露,然而子宫肌层起着物理屏障的作用,使用举宫器时可能会对肌层造成医源性损伤[49]

Padilla-Iserte等[49]提出了2个理论假说来解释举宫器与子宫内膜癌预后的关系。第1个理论是宏观层面。在举宫器的置入和使用过程中,尤其是对于萎缩、薄壁的子宫,举宫器的导杆可能会破坏子宫肌层,造成医源性的子宫破裂而引起肿瘤溢漏[51-52]。第2个理论是微观层面。根据帕斯卡原理,举宫器显著增加了子宫腔内的压力,在调整子宫和离断阴道的过程中所需的持续张力会加大宫腔内的压力[49]。而这种压力的增加可能导致肿瘤细胞穿透肌层能力增强,并经输卵管和淋巴脉管间隙扩散到宫腔外[48, 53]

因此,可通过以下措施来预防或减少举宫器导致的肿瘤溢漏:(1)尽可能避免或减少举宫器的使用,尤其是在可疑深肌层浸润、肿瘤体积较大、子宫壁薄和瘢痕子宫的情况下[49, 54-55];(2)更改举宫方式,可采用缝线悬吊子宫[38];(3)在手术开始时,最好在置入举宫器之前结扎或凝闭输卵管[56];(4)术中举宫操作轻柔,尽量减轻对肿瘤的挤压[57]

4.2 阴道离断的方式

早期子宫内膜癌患者预后良好,5年无复发生存率为75.6%,其中复发最常见的部位是阴道,复发率为16.0%[15, 58]。Ⅰ期子宫内膜癌的病灶局限于子宫体部,但术中对子宫直接或间接的操作可能会造成肿瘤破裂,导致碎裂的肿瘤细胞暴露于阴道残端[59-60]。Chang等[61]调查发现,59.8%的外科医师在离断阴道时发生过肿瘤溢漏,而一项前瞻性研究表明,子宫内膜癌微创手术患者有40%在阴道内发现了肿瘤细胞[60]

Stolnicu等[58]的前瞻性研究发现,子宫内膜癌细胞的阴道溢漏大多发生在手术前或手术过程中,并提议在手术前后冲洗阴道,以及在手术过程中使用避孕膜或专门设计的装置来防止阴道及盆腔内的肿瘤溢漏和种植。也可经阴道离断,或者离断阴道前环扎肿瘤下方的阴道,减少在盆腔及阴道残端种植、复发的概率[38]。此外,离断阴道前可更改体位为平卧位,关闭CO2气腹,在经阴道取出标本时使用隔离袋[62]

4.3 CO2气腹和Trocar管的使用

近年来研究发现,CO2气腹可能导致肿瘤细胞在切口的周围扩散和全身多处转移,形成一种特殊的复发模式,有时很难在术前进行评估[63-64]。目前CO2气腹对肿瘤的影响尚需更加严谨、可靠的临床和基础研究加以证实。

体外细胞实验发现,宫颈癌细胞在CO2气腹环境刺激下短期抑制后增殖能力增强,但侵袭、迁移和黏附能力降低[65]。Lin等[65]认为CO2的刺激并不是肿瘤细胞在腹腔内和切口周围转移复发的主要原因;恶性肿瘤在腹腔镜手术中扩散主要是由于在提取肿瘤标本的过程中,对肿瘤的过度挤压和不标准的操作造成肿瘤脱落细胞溢漏,直接种植在Trocar管部位。在体外动物模型中,电子扫描显微镜显示CO2气腹造成大鼠整个腹膜发生弥漫性的损伤[66]。Hopkins等[67]研究发现,与开腹手术相比,腹腔镜手术中Trocar管的使用可导致游离肿瘤细胞更多地转移到大鼠的腹壁切口部位,CO2气腹进一步增加了肿瘤细胞在Trocar管部位种植的风险。一项关于子宫内膜癌患者腹壁穿刺口转移的系统综述报道,大多数复发病例主要应归咎于对患者的初次分期不足,或者与肿瘤的特殊病理类型有关,而不是腹腔镜技术本身[68]。LAP2研究特别关注了Trocar管部位的肿瘤复发情况,在腹腔镜组1 696例患者中局部穿刺口处只有4例(ⅠB期、Ⅲ A期、Ⅲ C期内膜样腺癌各1例和ⅣB期癌肉瘤1例)复发,占0.24%[25]

因此,对于恶性肿瘤的初次治疗,外科医师术前应充分评估,慎重考虑腹腔镜适应证。在腹腔镜手术过程中应注意Trocar管的密闭性,避免频繁进出Trocar管,保持气腹压力恒定[39],另外也可尝试使用惰性气体或无气腹的腹腔镜技术[62]

5 小结

LACC试验引发的疑问与思考不可避免,应当准备好迎接针对微创手术安全性和高危子宫内膜癌结局的关注和讨论。外科随机对照试验的外部验证存在一些问题,因为外科手术不像变量有限的给药过程易于控制,而是一个依赖于外科医师经验和技术的主观过程。LACC试验以及LAP2和LACE试验都存在类似的问题。

综上所述,微创手术目前是子宫内膜癌病灶局限于子宫体患者的首选手术方式。LAP2和LACE试验结果表明,腹腔镜手术可以减少并发症和改善生活质量,而不影响长期预后。举宫器的使用、阴道离断的方式以及CO2气腹是开腹手术与微创手术的不同之处,有可能是导致LACC试验结果的原因之一,这些现象同样存在于子宫内膜癌微创手术中。举宫器的使用可能造成子宫肌层的损伤和子宫破裂,从而导致肿瘤细胞溢漏,并通过淋巴脉管间隙扩散转移;腹腔内阴道离断的方式可造成肿瘤细胞暴露于阴道残端,并可能播散至盆腹腔;CO2气腹可能会导致一种非常特殊的转移复发模式,但目前的临床和基础研究证据尚不充足。

因此,无瘤原则的遵守及微创技术的成熟是非常关键的,应加强腹腔镜手术的培训和监督,规范术中无瘤操作,通过在举宫、阴道离断、CO2气腹等方面改进避免发生术中肿瘤溢漏,并积极鼓励更多前瞻性临床研究的开展,减少对患者不良结局的影响。

参考文献
[1]
CROSBIE E J, KITSON S J, MCALPINE J N, MUKHOPADHYAY A, POWELL M E, SINGH N. Endometrial cancer[J]. Lancet, 2022, 399: 1412-1428. DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736(22)00323-3
[2]
FERLAY J, COLOMBET M, SOERJOMATARAM I, MATHERS C, PARKIN D M, PIÑEROS M, et al. Estimating the global cancer incidence and mortality in 2018:GLOBOCAN sources and methods[J]. Int J Cancer, 2019, 144: 1941-1953. DOI:10.1002/ijc.31937
[3]
UWINS C, PATEL H, PRAKASH BHANDORIA G, BUTLER-MANUEL S, TAILOR A, ELLIS P, et al. Laparoscopic and robotic surgery for endometrial and cervical cancer[J/OL]. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol), 2021, 33: e372-e382. DOI: 10.1016/j.clon.2021.05.001.
[4]
VERHEIJEN R, ZWEEMER R. Robotic surgery for gynaecologic cancer: an overview[J]. Curr Oncol Rep, 2012, 14: 544-549. DOI:10.1007/s11912-012-0270-8
[5]
REICH H, DECAPRIO J, MCGLYNN F. Laparoscopic hysterectomy[J]. J Gynecol Surg, 1989, 5: 213-216. DOI:10.1089/gyn.1989.5.213
[6]
NEZHAT C R, BURRELL M O, NEZHAT F R, BENIGNO B B, WELANDER C E. Laparoscopic radical hysterectomy with paraaortic and pelvic node dissection[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 1992, 166: 864-865. DOI:10.1016/0002-9378(92)91351-A
[7]
CHILDERS J M, BRZECHFFA P R, HATCH K D, SURWIT E A. Laparoscopically assisted surgical staging (LASS) of endometrial cancer[J]. Gynecol Oncol, 1993, 51: 33-38. DOI:10.1006/gyno.1993.1242
[8]
SCALICI J, LAUGHLIN B B, FINAN M A, WANG B, ROCCONI R P. The trend towards minimally invasive surgery (MIS) for endometrial cancer: an ACS-NSQIP evaluation of surgical outcomes[J]. Gynecol Oncol, 2015, 136: 512-515. DOI:10.1016/j.ygyno.2014.11.014
[9]
ABU-RUSTUM N R, YASHAR C M, BRADLEY K, CAMPOS S M, CHINO J, CHON H S, et al. NCCN guidelines® insights: uterine neoplasms, version 3.2021[J]. J Natl Compr Canc Netw, 2021, 19: 888-895. DOI:10.6004/jnccn.2021.0038
[10]
KOH W J, GREER B E, ABU-RUSTUM N R, APTE S M, CAMPOS S M, CHO K R, et al. Cervical cancer, version 2.2015[J]. J Natl Compr Canc Netw, 2015, 13: 395-404. DOI:10.6004/jnccn.2015.0055
[11]
PROTOPAPAS A, JARDON K, BOURDEL N, BOTCHORISHVILI R, RABISCHONG B, MAGE G, et al. Total laparoscopic radical hysterectomy in the treatment of early cervical cancer[J]. Int J Gynecol Cancer, 2009, 19: 712-722. DOI:10.1111/IGC.0b013e3181a3e2be
[12]
PARK D A, YUN J E, KIM S W, LEE S H. Surgical and clinical safety and effectiveness of robot-assisted laparoscopic hysterectomy compared to conventional laparoscopy and laparotomy for cervical cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. Eur J Surg Oncol, 2017, 43: 994-1002. DOI:10.1016/j.ejso.2016.07.017
[13]
HONG J H, CHOI J S, LEE J H, EOM J M, KO J H, BAE J W, et al. Can laparoscopic radical hysterectomy be a standard surgical modality in stage ⅠA2-ⅡA cervical cancer?[J]. Gynecol Oncol, 2012, 127: 102-106. DOI:10.1016/j.ygyno.2012.06.003
[14]
RAMIREZ P T, SOLIMAN P T, SCHMELER K M, DOS REIS R, FRUMOVITZ M. Laparoscopic and robotic techniques for radical hysterectomy in patients with early-stage cervical cancer[J]. Gynecol Oncol, 2008, 110(3 Suppl 2): S21-S24.
[15]
RAMIREZ P T, FRUMOVITZ M, PAREJA R, LOPEZ A, VIEIRA M, RIBEIRO R, et al. Minimally invasive versus abdominal radical hysterectomy for cervical cancer[J]. N Engl J Med, 2018, 379: 1895-1904. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa1806395
[16]
MELAMED A, MARGUL D J, CHEN L, KEATING N L, DEL CARMEN M G, YANG J H, et al. Survival after minimally invasive radical hysterectomy for early-stage cervical cancer[J]. N Engl J Med, 2018, 379: 1905-1914. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa1804923
[17]
UPPAL S, GEHRIG P A, PENG K, BIXEL K L, MATSUO K, VETTER M H, et al. Recurrence rates in patients with cervical cancer treated with abdominal versus minimally invasive radical hysterectomy: a multi-institutional retrospective review study[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2020, 38: 1030-1040. DOI:10.1200/JCO.19.03012
[18]
CUSIMANO M C, BAXTER N N, GIEN L T, MOINEDDIN R, LIU N, DOSSA F, et al. Impact of surgical approach on oncologic outcomes in women undergoing radical hysterectomy for cervical cancer[J/OL]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2019, 221: 619.e1-619.e24. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2019.07.009.
[19]
KIM S I, LEE M, LEE S, SUH D H, KIM H S, KIM K, et al. Impact of laparoscopic radical hysterectomy on survival outcome in patients with FIGO stage ⅠB cervical cancer: a matching study of two institutional hospitals in Korea[J]. Gynecol Oncol, 2019, 155: 75-82. DOI:10.1016/j.ygyno.2019.07.019
[20]
KOH W J, ABU-RUSTUM N R, BEAN S, BRADLEY K, CAMPOS S M, CHO K R, et al. Cervical cancer, version 3.2019, NCCN clinical practice guidelines in oncology[J]. J Natl Compr Canc Netw, 2019, 17: 64-84. DOI:10.6004/jnccn.2019.0001
[21]
QUERLEU D, CIBULA D, CONCIN N, FAGOTTI A, FERRERO A, FOTOPOULOU C, et al. Laparoscopic radical hysterectomy: a European Society of Gynaecological Oncology (ESGO) statement[J/OL]. Int J Gynecol Cancer, 2020, 30: 15. DOI: 10.1136/ijgc-2019-000775.
[22]
MARTH C, LANDONI F, MAHNER S, MCCORMACK M, GONZALEZ-MARTIN A, COLOMBO N, et al. Cervical cancer: ESMO Clinical Practice Guidelines for diagnosis, treatment and follow-up[J/OL]. Ann Oncol, 2017, 28(suppl_4): iv72-iv83. DOI: 10.1093/annonc/mdx220.
[23]
KOHLER C, HERTEL H, HERRMANN J, MARNITZ S, MALLMANN P, FAVERO G, et al. Laparoscopic radical hysterectomy with transvaginal closure of vaginal cuff-a multicenter analysis[J]. Int J Gynecol Cancer, 2019, 29: 845-850. DOI:10.1136/ijgc-2019-000388
[24]
UPPAL S, SPENCER R. Modify or abandon: minimally invasive radical hysterectomy for early-stage cervical cancer[J]. Int J Gynecol Cancer, 2019, 29: 843-844. DOI:10.1136/ijgc-2019-000574
[25]
WALKER J L, PIEDMONTE M R, SPIRTOS N M, EISENKOP S M, SCHLAERTH J B, MANNEL R S, et al. Recurrence and survival after random assignment to laparoscopy versus laparotomy for comprehensive surgical staging of uterine cancer: Gynecologic Oncology Group LAP2 Study[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2012, 30: 695-700. DOI:10.1200/JCO.2011.38.8645
[26]
JANDA M, GEBSKI V, DAVIES L C, FORDER P, BRAND A, HOGG R, et al. Effect of total laparoscopic hysterectomy vs total abdominal hysterectomy on disease-free survival among women with stage Ⅰ endometrial cancer: a randomized clinical trial[J]. JAMA, 2017, 317: 1224-1233. DOI:10.1001/jama.2017.2068
[27]
FLESHMAN J, SARGENT D J, GREEN E, ANVARI M, STRYKER S J, BEART R W JR, et al. Laparoscopic colectomy for cancer is not inferior to open surgery based on 5-year data from the COST Study Group trial[J]. Ann Surg, 2007, 246: 655-664. DOI:10.1097/SLA.0b013e318155a762
[28]
BONJER H J, DEIJEN C L, ABIS G A, CUESTA M A, VAN DER PAS M H, DE LANGE-DE KLERK E S, et al. A randomized trial of laparoscopic versus open surgery for rectal cancer[J]. N Engl J Med, 2015, 372: 1324-1332. DOI:10.1056/NEJMoa1414882
[29]
HUSCHER C G, MINGOLI A, SGARZINI G, SANSONETTI A, DI PAOLA M, RECHER A, et al. Laparoscopic versus open subtotal gastrectomy for distal gastric cancer: five-year results of a randomized prospective trial[J]. Ann Surg, 2005, 241: 232-237. DOI:10.1097/01.sla.0000151892.35922.f2
[30]
WALKER J L, PIEDMONTE M R, SPIRTOS N M, EISENKOP S M, SCHLAERTH J B, MANNEL R S, et al. Laparoscopy compared with laparotomy for comprehensive surgical staging of uterine cancer: Gynecologic Oncology Group Study LAP2[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2009, 27: 5331-5336. DOI:10.1200/JCO.2009.22.3248
[31]
KORNBLITH A B, HUANG H Q, WALKER J L, SPIRTOS N M, ROTMENSCH J, CELLA D. Quality of life of patients with endometrial cancer undergoing laparoscopic international federation of gynecology and obstetrics staging compared with laparotomy: a Gynecologic Oncology Group study[J]. J Clin Oncol, 2009, 27: 5337-5342. DOI:10.1200/JCO.2009.22.3529
[32]
JANDA M, GEBSKI V, BRAND A, HOGG R, JOBLING T W, LAND R, et al. Quality of life after total laparoscopic hysterectomy versus total abdominal hysterectomy for stage Ⅰ endometrial cancer (LACE): a randomised trial[J]. Lancet Oncol, 2010, 11: 772-780. DOI:10.1016/S1470-2045(10)70145-5
[33]
LU Q, LIU H Y, LIU C D, WANG S Z, LI S H, GUO S L, et al. Comparison of laparoscopy and laparotomy for management of endometrial carcinoma: a prospective randomized study with 11-year experience[J]. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol, 2013, 139: 1853-1859. DOI:10.1007/s00432-013-1504-3
[34]
FADER A N, JAVA J, TENNEY M, RICCI S, GUNDERSON C C, TEMKIN S M, et al. Impact of histology and surgical approach on survival among women with early-stage, high-grade uterine cancer: an NRG Oncology/Gynecologic Oncology Group ancillary analysis[J]. Gynecol Oncol, 2016, 143: 460-465. DOI:10.1016/j.ygyno.2016.10.016
[35]
GALLOTTA V, CONTE C, FEDERICO A, VIZZIELLI G, GUELI ALLETTI S, TORTORELLA L, et al. Robotic versus laparoscopic radical hysterectomy in early cervical cancer: a case matched control study[J]. Eur J Surg Oncol, 2018, 44: 754-759. DOI:10.1016/j.ejso.2018.01.092
[36]
CORRADO G, FANFANI F, GHEZZI F, FAGOTTI A, UCCELLA S, MANCINI E, et al. Mini-laparoscopic versus robotic radical hysterectomy plus systematic pelvic lymphadenectomy in early cervical cancer patients. A multi-institutional study[J]. Eur J Surg Oncol, 2015, 41: 136-141. DOI:10.1016/j.ejso.2014.10.048
[37]
中华医学会妇科肿瘤学分会. 宫颈癌微创手术的中国专家共识[J]. 现代妇产科进展, 2019, 28: 801-803. DOI:10.13283/j.cnki.xdfckjz.2019.11.001
[38]
陈春林, 郎景和, 向阳, 刘萍, 宋磊, 狄文, 等. 子宫颈癌腹腔镜手术治疗的中国专家共识[J]. 中华妇产科杂志, 2020, 55: 579-585.
[39]
向阳, 蒋芳. 宫颈癌腹腔镜手术的争议及策略[J]. 中国实用妇科与产科杂志, 2019, 35: 1112-1116.
[40]
小林栄仁. 日本妇瘤学界对子宫颈癌腹腔镜手术的态度[J]. 中国实用妇科与产科杂志, 2020, 36: 324-325. DOI:10.19538/j.fk2020040109
[41]
KANAO H, CHANG E J, MATSUZAKI S, ROMAN L D, MATSUO K. Survival effect of intra-operative tumor spillage during minimally invasive hysterectomy for early-stage endometrial cancer: a call for research[J]. Int J Gynecol Cancer, 2021, 31: 308-309. DOI:10.1136/ijgc-2020-002289
[42]
MATSUO K, MACHIDA H, YAMAGAMI W, EBINA Y, KOBAYASHI Y, TABATA T, et al. Intraoperative capsule rupture, postoperative chemotherapy, and survival of women with stageⅠepithelial ovarian cancer[J]. Obstet Gynecol, 2019, 134: 1017-1026. DOI:10.1097/AOG.0000000000003507
[43]
MATSUO K, HUANG Y M, MATSUZAKI S, KLAR M, ROMAN L D, SOOD A K, et al. Minimally invasive surgery and risk of capsule rupture for women with early-stage ovarian cancer[J]. JAMA Oncol, 2020, 6: 1110-1113. DOI:10.1001/jamaoncol.2020.1702
[44]
UCCELLA S, BONZINI M, MALZONI M, FANFANI F, PALOMBA S, ALETTI G, et al. The effect of a uterine manipulator on the recurrence and mortality of endometrial cancer: a multi-centric study by the Italian Society of Gynecological Endoscopy[J/OL]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2017, 216: 592.e1-592.e11. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2017.01.027.
[45]
TINELLI R, CICINELLI E, TINELLI A, BETTOCCHI S, ANGIONI S, LITTA P. Laparoscopic treatment of early-stage endometrial cancer with and without uterine manipulator: our experience and review of literature[J]. Surg Oncol, 2016, 25: 98-103. DOI:10.1016/j.suronc.2016.03.005
[46]
MENG Y, LIU Y, LIN S, CAO C, WU P, GAO P, et al. The effects of uterine manipulators in minimally invasive hysterectomy for endometrial cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis[J]. Eur J Surg Oncol, 2020, 46: 1225-1232. DOI:10.1016/j.ejso.2020.03.213
[47]
OLIVER-PEREZ M R, MAGRIÑA J, VILLALAIN-GONZALEZ C, JIMENEZ-LOPEZ J S, LOPEZ-GONZALEZ G, BARCENA C, et al. Lymphovascular space invasion in endometrial carcinoma: tumor size and location matter[J/OL]. Surg Oncol, 2021, 37: 101541. DOI: 10.1016/j.suronc.2021.101541.
[48]
MACHIDA H, HOM M S, ADAMS C L, ECKHARDT S E, GARCIA-SAYRE J, MIKAMI M, et al. Intrauterine manipulator use during minimally invasive hysterectomy and risk of lymphovascular space invasion in endometrial cancer[J]. Int J Gynecol Cancer, 2018, 28: 208-219. DOI:10.1097/IGC.0000000000001181
[49]
PADILLA-ISERTE P, LAGO V, TAUSTE C, DÍAZ-FEIJOO B, GIL-MORENO A, OLIVER R, et al. Impact of uterine manipulator on oncological outcome in endometrial cancer surgery[J/OL]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2021, 224: 65.e1-65e11. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2020.07.025.
[50]
ABDEL KHALEK Y, BITAR R, CHRISTOFOROU C, GARZON S, TROPEA A, BIONDI A, et al. Uterine manipulator in total laparoscopic hysterectomy: safety and usefulness[J]. Updates Surg, 2020, 72: 1247-1254. DOI:10.1007/s13304-019-00681-w
[51]
AKDEMIR A, CIRPAN T. Iatrogenic uterine perforation and bowel penetration using a Hohl manipulator: a case report[J]. Int J Surg Case Rep, 2014, 5: 271-273. DOI:10.1016/j.ijscr.2013.10.005
[52]
WU H H, YEH G P, HSIEH T C. Iatrogenic uterine rupture caused by overinflation of RUMI manipulator balloon[J]. J Minim Invasive Gynecol, 2005, 12: 174-176. DOI:10.1016/j.jmig.2005.01.012
[53]
ALBRIGHT B B, BLACK J D, PASSARELLI R, GYSLER S, WHICKER M, ALTWERGER G, et al. Associated characteristics and impact on recurrence and survival of free-floating tumor fragments in the lumen of fallopian tubes in TypeⅠand TypeⅡendometrial cancer[J]. Gynecol Oncol Rep, 2018, 23: 28-33. DOI:10.1016/j.gore.2018.01.003
[54]
MACHIDA H, CASEY J P, GARCIA-SAYRE J, JUNG C E, CASABAR J K, MOEINI A, et al. Timing of intrauterine manipulator insertion during minimally invasive surgical staging and results of pelvic cytology in endometrial cancer[J]. J Minim Invasive Gynecol, 2016, 23: 234-241. DOI:10.1016/j.jmig.2015.10.002
[55]
MILLER H, MATSUO K. A cesarean delivery sequela: scar rupture and tumor spill during laparoscopic hysterectomy for endometrial cancer[J/OL]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 2020, 223: 582. DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2020.03.015.
[56]
SHINOHARA S, SAKAMOTO I, NUMATA M, IKEGAMI A, TERAMOTO K. Risk of spilling cancer cells during total laparoscopic hysterectomy in low-risk endometrial cancer[J]. Gynecol Minim Invasive Ther, 2017, 6: 113-115. DOI:10.1016/j.gmit.2016.10.002
[57]
董阳阳, 王建六. 子宫内膜癌的腹腔镜手术[J]. 实用妇产科杂志, 2022, 38: 171-173.
[58]
STOLNICU S, TERINTE C, IOANID N, SILVA E. Presence of tumor cells in the vagina during surgical treatment could be the source of vaginal recurrence in patients with endometrial carcinoma-a pilot prospective study[J/OL]. Ann Diagn Pathol, 2020, 46: 151503. DOI: 10.1016/j.anndiagpath.2020.151503.
[59]
PADILLA-ISERTE P, QUINTANA R, MARINA T, LAGO V, MATUTE L, DOMINGO S. Uterine manipulator in endometrial cancer: a video is worth a thousand words[J/OL]. Int J Gynecol Cancer, 2021, 31: 147. DOI: 10.1136/ijgc-2020-002011.
[60]
RYO E, YORINAGA Y, NAGASAKA T, YOSHIKAWA H, TAKETANI Y. Tumor cell spillage to the vaginal cavity and vaginal stump during the surgery of endometrial carcinoma[J]. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand, 2001, 80: 364-367. DOI:10.1034/j.1600-0412.2001.080004364.x
[61]
CHANG E J, JOOYA N D, CIESIELSKI K M, SHAHZAD M M, ROMAN L D, MATSUO K. Intraoperative tumor spill during minimally invasive hysterectomy for endometrial cancer: a survey study on experience and practice[J]. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol, 2021, 267: 256-261. DOI:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2021.11.020
[62]
屈庆喜, 张远丽, 石比伯, 张师前. LACC临床随机对照试验研究的启示[J]. 中国实用妇科与产科杂志, 2020, 36: 320-323. DOI:10.19538/j.fk2020040108
[63]
TSUJI S, HORI K, TASHIMA L, YOSHIMURA M, ITO K. Multiple metastases after laparoscopic surgery for early-stage endometrial cancer: a case report[J]. Int J Surg Case Rep, 2020, 76: 552-556. DOI:10.1016/j.ijscr.2020.10.003
[64]
KONG T W, CHANG S J, PIAO X L, PAEK J, LEE Y, LEE E J, et al. Patterns of recurrence and survival after abdominal versus laparoscopic/robotic radical hysterectomy in patients with early cervical cancer[J]. J Obstet Gynaecol Res, 2016, 42: 77-86. DOI:10.1111/jog.12840
[65]
LIN F, PAN L, LI L, LI D, MO L. Effects of a simulated CO2 pneumoperitoneum environment on the proliferation, apoptosis, and metastasis of cervical cancer cells in vitro[J]. Med Sci Monit, 2014, 20: 2497-2503. DOI:10.12659/MSM.891179
[66]
VOLZ J, KÖSTER S, SPACEK Z, PAWELETZ N. The influence of pneumoperitoneum used in laparoscopic surgery on an intraabdominal tumor growth[J]. Cancer, 1999, 86: 770-774. DOI:10.1002/(SICI)1097-0142(19990901)86:5<770::AID-CNCR11>3.0.CO;2-3
[67]
HOPKINS M P, DULAI R M, OCCHINO A, HOLDA S. The effects of carbon dioxide pneumoperitoneum on seeding of tumor in port sites in a rat model[J]. Am J Obstet Gynecol, 1999, 181: 1329-1334. DOI:10.1016/S0002-9378(99)70372-8
[68]
PALOMBA S, FALBO A, RUSSO T, LA SALA G B. Port-site metastasis after laparoscopic surgical staging of endometrial cancer: a systematic review of the published and unpublished data[J]. J Minim Invasive Gynecol, 2012, 19: 531-537. DOI:10.1016/j.jmig.2012.03.023