2. 甘肃省疾病预防控制中心
儿童社区获得性肺炎(community-acquired pneumonia,CAP)是指健康儿童在医院外获得的感染性肺炎,其是导致5岁以下儿童死亡的重要原因之一[1]。在美国、欧洲、拉丁美洲及亚太地区均带来巨大的疾病负担[2 – 4]。由于广泛开展肺炎免疫接种,CAP的经济负担在过去10年间有所下降,但在未进行免疫接种的地区,CAP仍是儿科的主要病种。为了解5岁以下儿童CAP的病原谱和疾病负担,为肺炎防控提供理论依据,本文对CAP的病原与耐药、临床和流行病学特征、疾病负担、预防控制等情况进行综述如下。
1 CAP的病原谱与耐药性CAP的病原体达100多种,包括细菌、病毒和真菌。细菌性感染占主导地位,且肺炎链球菌(Streptococcus pneumoniae,SP)是主要的病原体[5]。近10年来,CAP病原谱发生了以下变化:发达国家的CAP以细菌为主转变为病毒为主[6],国内CAP病毒感染也逐渐占主导地位[7];细菌感染所占比例有所下降,且革兰阳性菌感染明显减少,而革兰阴性菌感染明显增多[8];非典型病原体尤其是肺炎支原体(Mycoplasma pneumoniae,MP)所占比例不断增加;联合感染越来越常见[9]。
细菌型CAP的病因学研究较多,但检测方法不同,检出率亦不同。有研究表明,鼻咽抽出物中SP的检出率(79.1 %)高于葡萄球菌属(9.6 %),而在血培养中金黄色葡萄球菌检出率(30.6 %)高于SP(20.4 %)[7, 10]。不同地区CAP病原体检出率不同,澳大利亚SP(14 %)和MP(9 %)为主要病原体[11],印度5岁以下儿童CAP的主要病原体为SP(50 %)和b型流感嗜血杆菌(Haemophilus influenza type b,Hib)(8.8 %)[12],深圳MP、SP和Hib的检出率依次为52.47 %、9.07 %和6.76 %[13],江苏南京SP和嗜肺军团菌(Legionella pneumophila,LP)检出率依次为40.78 %和0.91 %[14]。鉴于非典型病原体如MP和衣原体(Chlamydia pneu-moniae,CP)较难检测,故用急性期IgM抗体或反转录 – 聚合酶链反应(reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction,RT-PCR)作为检测MP的金标准,并辅以头痛、哮喘、干啰音等临床特征进行诊断,结果显示MP逐渐成为儿童CAP的主要病原体,检出率高达34.8 % [15]。非典型病原体检出率地区差异较大,江苏南京、意大利和巴西CP的检出率分别为0.33 %、13 %和63.8 %[14, 16 – 17]。
无论在发达国家还是发展中国家,病毒感染在学龄前儿童中所占比例较大,< 18月龄幼儿检出率(83 %)高于其他年龄段儿童(67 %)[18]。引起CAP的常见病毒有呼吸道合胞病毒(respiratory syncytial virus,RSV)和鼻病毒(rhinovirus,RV)。RSV检出率为3 %~42 %,且大多数为联合感染,其中以 < 18月龄幼儿最为常见 [19 – 20]。RV是儿童流行性感冒的主要病原体,< 1、1~3和 ≥ 4岁儿童的检出率分别为36 %、27 %和26 %。此外,腺病毒(adenovirus,ADV)、博卡病毒(bocavirus,HBoV)和人类偏肺病毒(human metapneumovirus,hMPV)等逐渐被人们发现[21 – 22]。西班牙、芬兰等地区的研究表明,HBoV和hMPV的检出率分别为2.9 %~18 %和4.9 %~14 %,且多以联合感染为主,常导致重度CAP的发生[21]。Esposito等[22]研究表明,相对于RSV(31.7 %)和RV(24.3 %)而言,ADV、流感病毒和副流感病毒(parainfluenza virus,PIV)引起的CAP发病率较低,约为3 %~10 %。
随着抗生素的不规则用药,细菌的耐药性不断增加,尤其是MP和Hib [23 – 24]。有研究表明,MP对盘尼西林的耐药显著增加[25],有50 %的MP对大环内酯类药物和克林霉素耐药,76.8 %的Hib对甲氧苄氨嘧啶耐药,< 10 %的Hib对氟喹诺酮类药物耐药[26]。MP和金黄色葡萄球菌等主要对阿奇霉素、四环素和复方新诺明等有较高耐药性,耐药率为55.1 %~93.7 %;其中对阿奇霉素的耐药率高达97.50 %,对四环素和复方新诺明的耐药率分别为94.9 %和94.3 %;对氯霉素的耐药率仅为4.6 %[27 – 28]。此外,MP对 β – 内酰胺类药物的耐药率为30 %~60 %,其中对头孢曲松、青霉素G和头孢噻肟的耐药率依次为38.7 %、39.4 %和55.4 % [29 – 30]。Hib和PIV等对氨苄西林和第二、三代头孢的耐药率高达88.1 %,而Hib对阿奇霉素的耐药性较低,约为4.5 %[31];且MP和Hib均对亚胺培南100 %敏感[32]。
近年来,MP具有多重耐药且呈上升趋势[33 – 34]。有研究表明,多重耐药与家族转座子Tn916有关,血清型19A肺炎球菌耐青霉素逐年上升,究其原因与耐药基因ST276和ST320克隆有关[35]。在全球范围内,除血清型19A外,西班牙9V、英格拉14和哥伦比亚23F血清型肺炎球菌分别与耐药基因ST156、ST9和T338的克隆有关,因此合理使用抗生素和研制新一代共轭疫苗以减少多重耐药是当前CAP防控的首要任务[36]。
2 CAP临床和流行病学特征CAP常见的临床特征为发热、捻发音、呼吸加快等,但不同国家和地区,其临床和流行病学特征有所差异。埃及CAP患者的主要表现为呼吸加快(100 %)、捻发音(99 %)、发热(92.2 %)等并伴有中性粒细胞、淋巴细胞增多[37];印度的CAP患者主要以发热伴随着呼吸加快、哮喘等为主,严重者可出现紫绀、呼吸窘迫等[12];中国CAP患者的主要表现为发热、咳嗽、肺部水泡音和浓痰[38]。
CAP发病与年龄、地区、季节等有关[39]。< 1岁婴儿为CAP的主要发病群体[13];学龄前儿童SP检出率最高为55.33 %,其次乙型流感病毒(influenza B virus,INFB)检出率为12.41 %;学龄儿童PIV检出率最高为11.43 %,Lp少见[40]。CAP病原体的季节性分布特征存在地区差异性。西班牙冬季CAP频发(34 %),冬、春季SP高发(21 %、17 %),秋、冬季流感病毒高发(6 %、5 %)[41];巴西秋季RSV高发(36.4 %),春季PIV高发(32.5 %)[42]。目前,中国各地区对CAP的流行情况和病原学特点研究较少,主要是针对成年患者的随访研究[43],因此有必要依据CAP的临床和流行病学特征对CAP的病原学特点、耐药性等进行全面了解。
3 CAP的疾病负担CAP发病率随年龄增长呈U型曲线,其中婴幼儿发病明显高于成年人[44]。2010年全球平均每名5岁以下儿童发生0.19次(95 % CI = 0.10~0.44)肺炎;肺炎发生12 040万例(95 % CI = 6 080~27 700),其中严重肺炎发生1 411万例(95 % CI = 1 030~4 004)[45]。据WHO报道,2015年肺炎估计造成920 136例5岁以下儿童死亡,占5岁以下儿童死亡数的16 %[46]。CAP在美国、拉丁美洲以及亚太地区均可带来巨大疾病负担。MP是拉丁美洲的主要病原体,由于老龄化、联合感染增多以及抗生素抵抗等因素,不仅出现了CAP耐药性,更增加了疾病负担[47]。全球每年1.56亿5岁以下儿童的CAP新发病例中有95 %发生在发展中国家,中国疾病负担仅次于印度,因肺炎住院的患儿占儿科住院患儿的24.5 %~65.2 %[14, 48]。据全球疾病负担评估,1990 — 2013年肺炎相关伤残调整生命年(disability-adjusted life years,DALYs)减少了58 %,从18.6亿降至7.8亿[48]。国内外对5岁以下儿童CAP疾病负担直接指标的相关报道较少,且75 %发生在发展中国家,其中东南亚和撒哈拉以南的疾病负担巨大,占全球肺炎负担的50 %[49]。
由于受经济水平、医疗保健条件及医院等级等因素的影响,各地区医院收治患者的住院费用均有所不同[50]。2015年中央、省、市、县级市和县级医院儿童支气管肺炎住院病人的直接医疗费用分别为5 785.8、5 341.0、3 735.1、2 755.0和2 188.9元,住院天数分别为7.0、7.5、7.2、6.6和6.3 d[51]。北京市CAP患者平均总医疗费用为12 147.97元,广东珠江市住院总费用为3 000~181 378元[52]。在美国,每年CAP对成人带来的经济负担 > 17亿美元,儿童为1 467美元/人,住院费用为12 000美元/人,生产力损失为2~4 d [49]。
4 CAP的预防控制除药物治疗外,疫苗是降低儿童CAP发病最有效的方法[53]。目前国际上主要有7价肺炎球菌结合疫苗(7-valent peneumococcal conjugate vaccine,PCV7)、10价肺炎球菌结合疫苗(10-valent peneumococcal conjugate vaccine,PCV10)和13价肺炎球菌结合疫苗(13-valent peneumococcal conjugate vaccine,PCV13),中国上市疫苗主要包括23价肺炎球菌多糖疫苗(23-valent penumococcal polysaccharide vaccine,Pen-V23)、PCV7、PCV13、Hib疫苗等[54]。
2015年,肺炎结合疫苗全球覆盖率达35 %,但CAP病原血清型种类较多,因此导致1种疫苗不能完全覆盖[55]。有研究表明,2005 — 2013年中国 ≤ 18岁人群的肺炎球菌分离株中,PCV7血清型覆盖率为60.2 %(54.2 %~67.1 %),PCV13为86.9 %(82.1 %~91.9 %)[56]。在美国,PCV7疫苗使 < 2岁儿童年均住院率降低43.2 %,2~4岁儿童年均住院率降低12.5 % [57];在澳大利亚,< 2和2~4岁儿童年均住院率分别降低了38 %和29 %[58]。在中国,≤ 2岁儿童主要接种PCV7和PCV13疫苗,可覆盖主要致病血清型(19A、19F、14、3和23F)[34],对MP血清型的潜在保护率达53 %,但PCV7疫苗对血清型1、3、5、6A和7F缺乏保护作用,PCV13疫苗则可有效覆盖且其较PCV7疫苗对婴幼儿更为安全[59]。2005 — 2011年全国监测数据显示,5岁以下儿童PCV13疫苗的覆盖范围高于PCV7和PCV10疫苗[30]。Hib疫苗可预防由Hib引起的肺炎、脑膜炎等侵袭性感染,且安全性较好[60]。经Hib疫苗基础免疫后,机体产生保护性抗体,如在冈比亚,> 99 %的婴儿接种后产生抗体[61]。2015年Hib疫苗全球平均覆盖率为63 %,其中美国覆盖率高达90 %,西太平洋仅为25 %[48]。2000 — 2001年肯尼亚儿童接种Hib疫苗后,侵袭性Hib疾病发病率从62.6/10万下降至4.5/10万,疫苗效果估计为93 %(95 % CI = 87 %~96 %),类似的情况也发生在澳大利亚[62 – 63]。中国儿童Hib疫苗接种率为55.9 %(95 % CI = 52.3 %~59.4 %),东部地区接种率(62.9 %)高于中西部地区(48.1 %),城市地区(53.9 %)高于农村地区(41.9 %),本地儿童(60.0 %)高于流动儿童(54.3 %),总体上我国Hib疫苗接种率偏低,且存在地区差异[64]。
5 小 结CAP是导致5岁以下儿童死亡的主要疾病之一,SP和Hib是CAP的主要病原体,但不同国家地区的病原谱存在差异。当前病原谱出现新的变化,CP、RV、hMPV等病原体亦受到关注。虽然抗生素使用和疫苗接种有效降低了CAP的发病率和死亡率,但耐药性和病原谱的改变增大了治疗难度,因此有必要进一步研究病原的演变趋势、完善监测系统、基本实现疫苗全覆盖、研制有效的抗病毒药物、合理使用抗菌药物以及调节机体免疫反应,最终降低CAP的疾病负担。
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