糖尿病前期是一种处于糖代谢正常与糖尿病 (diabetes mellitus,DM) 之间的异常状态,包括糖耐量减低 (impaired glucose tolerance,IGT,口服75 g葡萄糖2 h后血糖在7.8~11.1 mmol•L−1)、空腹血糖受损 (impaired fasting glucose,IFG ,空腹血糖在6.1~7.0 mmol•L−1) 及两者合并的状态[1]。40%~50% 的前期患者将进展为2型糖尿病 (type 2 diabetes mellitus,T2DM)[2]。糖尿病前期中,IGT阶段已存在明显的胰岛素抵抗 (insulin resistance,IR) 和胰岛β细胞分泌功能缺陷,处于可发展为T2DM和心血管疾病的高危状态[3]。IGT阶段人群往往伴有血脂异常,更增加了大血管病变的发生率[4, 5]。国内外的大型临床试验已证明,IGT人群是T2DM预防的关键人群,在此阶段的干预可使25%~60% 的人群避免发展为T2DM[6]。IGT的病因同DM一样尚未完全阐明,目前认为IGT的发生与遗传易感性和环境因素有关,前者包括导致IR和胰岛素 (insulin,INS) 分泌缺陷的基因; 后者主要包括逐渐高龄、饮食结构不合理、体力活动减少、肥胖、各种心理及情绪异常变化和各种应激等。其中遗传因素决定了个体对IGT的易感性,而多种环境因素可能是促使IGT发生的外部原因。由于遗传异质性,IGT主要是IR还是INS分泌缺陷引发,各种报道不一。现认为IGT发展为DM是IR和INS分泌缺陷共同作用的结果[7]。
1 西药用于糖尿病预防的临床研究目前国外临床研究DM的预防,以生活方式强化为主,包括饮食控制和体育锻炼。生活方式强化能较好地降低IGT人群的DM发病率,一般无不良事 件发生,并且在血压、血脂方面都有较好的防控作用[8−11],但往往难以长期坚持[2]。我国于20世纪80年代中期在大庆也开展了生活方式干预IGT的试验,研究历时6年,证明饮食、运动或饮食加运动均可显著降低DM发生的危险度。近年来的临床研究则开始倾向于在IGT人群使用口服降糖药以及天然产物,例如二甲双胍、噻唑烷二酮类药物、胰高血糖素样肽类似物和α葡萄糖苷酶抑制剂等。这些药物通过抑制肝糖原异生,改善外周IR,增加INS敏感性,促进INS分泌等方式阻止IGT向T2DM的发展,降低IGT患者的血糖水平。其详细的作用机制和不良反应见表 1。国内从90年代起也对以上药物开展了干预研究,结果表明二甲双胍和阿卡波糖均能显著降低发生DM相对危险度; 饮食加运动组也能降低危险度,但没有显著差异[6]。这些国内外的大型研究为DM的预防提供了宝贵的经验,证实了T2DM是可以被预防的。但试验的药物存在不同程度的不良反应 (表 1),且价格较高[12],使其应用受到限制。
中国传统医学历来主张“治未病”的思想。中药相对而言不良反应少,作用靶点多,着重整体调节和个体化治疗,价格相对低廉,是我国DM前期药物干预的新方向[7, 18]。近年来,中医药对DM及其并发症的治疗报道较多,也有一些中药以DM前期人群 (包括IFG和/或IGT) 为对象开展了部分临床研究。2010年以前的研究包括六味地黄丸[19]、芪麦降糖饮[20]、糖衡I号[21]、降糖补肾方[22]、银杏叶提取物[23]和糖耐康[24]等。2010年及以后的临床IGT人群中药干预研究,主要集中在中药对IGT人群空腹血糖、餐后血糖、INS和糖化血红蛋白的调节,以及对血脂和体重的影响。这些药物在降糖、调节血脂以及改善INS分泌等方面显示出一定的疗效,且不良反应较少,详见表 2。
DM预防药物的研究,很大程度上依赖于动物 实验模型是否完善。目前,国外多使用自发性T2DM的OLETF (Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima Fatty) 大鼠[44]、SHROB (spontaneously hypertensive obese) 大鼠[45]、ZDF (Zucker diabetic fatty) 大鼠[46, 47]以及Apoa-I基因敲除小鼠[48]等,国内多使用诱导剂[49]、饲喂高热量饲料[50−52]或诱导剂注射复合高热量饲料[53]等建立模型。但是,这些模型多是DM模型,在IGT阶段进行药物干预研究的仍属少数。近年来国内建立的IGT动物模型包括饲喂高脂饲料[50]、四氧嘧啶加高糖高脂饲料[54]、新生大鼠注射链脲佐菌素 (streptozocin,STZ)[55]、成年鼠小剂量注射STZ[56]、D-半乳糖[9]或地塞米松[57]等,详见表 3。这些模型符合IGT动物空腹血糖正常、餐后血糖升高的特点,适用于DM前期的药物预防研究。
但是,目前IGT动物模型的研究也存在一些问题。例如D-半乳糖腹腔注射法 (表 3中复方葛根胶囊、水飞蓟素和益肾活血胶囊) 和地塞米松法 (表 3中六黄合剂) 在动物进入IGT阶段前即开始药物干预,不符合临床药物干预的实际情况; 动物IGT模型的判断标准目前是基于人的判断标准,即口服葡萄糖耐量试验 (oral glucose tolerance test,OGTT) 2 h血糖值7.8~11.1 mmol•L−1 (即140~200 mg•dL−1),这一指标及其标准是否适用于动物模型,仍有待于研究; 一些试验中没有统一标准,仅使用统计检验判断是否与正常对照组有显著差异,不能区分IGT动物和DM动物,等等。这些问题说明IGT动物模型处于起步阶段。模型的制备方法、判断标准等方面仍需要大量的工作。
4 糖尿病预防候选药物作用机制研究近年来,对DM预防候选药物作用的机制也有了一些研究,主要包括降低IGT阶段的IR、炎症水平、血脂水平以及改善胰岛细胞功能等。
4.1 降低IRLi等[58]报道了复方葛根胶囊对IGT小鼠糖耐量的干预作用。复方葛根胶囊组 (51~204 mg•kg−1) 使模型大鼠胰岛素抵抗指数从4.29 ± 0.75(n = 12) 降低至3.52 ± 0.59和2.93 ± 0.46之间,说明复方葛根胶囊改善模型大鼠IGT的状态与其降低IR和提高INS敏感性有关。六黄合剂也能逆转地塞米松 (1 mg•kg−1,im,qod,7 d) 诱导的IGT大鼠糖耐量降低,并同样能够改善IR[58]。
4.2 降低炎症水平IGT状态下的患者或模型动物,常伴有慢性炎症。炎症反应累及胰岛组织,使INS 的产生和分泌受到影响。GLP-1类似物利拉鲁肽 (li-raglutide) 和中药复方参麦汤对IGT干预的环节均与降低炎症水平有关。在自发性IGT-OLEFT大鼠模型上,利拉鲁肽 (50~200 μg•kg−1,ip,bid,12 w) 显著降低模型动物OGTT 2 h血糖值,与生理盐水对照组相比,下降了38.7%~41.4%; 同时,胰岛细胞功能指数上升40.3%~43.1%。对血清炎症因子IL-6和超敏C反应蛋白的检测显示,利拉鲁肽显著降低以上炎症因子水平,与溶剂对照组相比,分别下降了35.4%~45.1% 和27.6%~35.7%,提示利拉鲁肽改善IGT状态与降低上述炎症因子有关[63]。复方中药参麦汤 (4 g•kg−1,po,qd,8 w) 也能降低高脂高糖饲料喂养结合腹腔单次注射小剂量STZ (20 mg•kg−1) 所致IGT模型大鼠的IL-6和TNF-α水平,与模型对照组相比,分别下降了7.4% 和15.5%,并在一定程度上逆转病变肝组织[53]。在临床研究中,糖异平 (每次10 g,po,tid,12 w) 显著降低IGT患者的餐后高血糖,其作用机制也与降低超敏C反应蛋白和TNF-α相关,并能减低炎症因子激发的氧化应激反应[67]。
4.3 降低血脂水平在IGT阶段,患者或模型动物的INS分泌减少,INS对脂肪代谢的调节作用减弱,进而导致高脂血症的形成[58]。据报道,糖前康胶囊 (每次3粒,tid) 在临床上预防和治疗IGT的作用与其降低血脂和改善血液流变学有关,使之适合于IGT大血管并发症的治疗[62]。糖异平能显著降低IGT患者餐后血糖,也与它的降脂作用相关 (除其抗炎作用外)。一个疗程糖异平 (每次10 g,po,tid,12 w) 后,IGT患者的总胆固醇和甘油三酯分别下降16.8% 和32.6%[61]。在临床前研究中,选用小剂量STZ (25 mg•kg−1) 腹腔单次注射结合高脂高糖饲料喂养制备的IGT大鼠模型,糖脂平 (20 mL•kg−1,po,qd,8 w) 能使模型动物的OGTT 2 h血糖值从 (8.91 ± 1.43) mmol•L−1降到 (7.01 ± 2.29) mmol•L−1,并使自由脂肪酸值 (pg•mL−1) 从29.82 ± 5.56降到23.27 ± 4.70。这些结果说明糖脂平可能通过改善脂代谢、增加INS活性而干预IGT[63]。
4.4 改善胰岛β细胞功能Hong等[62]报道了中药金糖宁改善IGT小鼠的糖代谢紊乱和胰岛β细胞功能的作用。高血糖钳夹技术对胰岛β细胞功能评价结果显示,IGT模型小鼠稳态时葡萄糖输注速率 (mg•kg−1•min−1) 和最大INS分泌量 (mmol•L−1) (7.8 ± 1.3和1.30 ± 0.19) 显著低于正常对照组 (24.8 ± 11.0和3.83 ± 0.26),提示模型小鼠胰岛β细胞INS分泌功能 受损; 金糖宁 (16 g•kg−1饲料) 组葡萄糖输注速率和最大INS分泌量显著升高 (12.4 ± 2.1和3.13 ± 0.42),升幅分别达59.0% 和140.8%,说明该中药可显著改善IGT模型小鼠的胰岛β细胞功能 (即对葡萄糖的反应性和INS分泌)。此外,该中药还上调胰腺中与胰岛细胞增殖和INS合成分泌相关的关键因子 (PDX-1、AKT、INS-1) 的mRNA水平表达。利拉鲁肽 (100和200 μg•kg−1) 能提高胰岛β细胞功能指数,与生理盐水干预组相比,增幅分别达40.3% 和43.1%,提示该GLP-1类似物也能改善IGT-OLEFT大鼠胰岛细胞功能[63]。
以上作用机制研究为上述候选药物在DM预防领域的应用提供了一定支持。一种中药的DM前期预防作用机制往往涉及多个DM发病环节,这种特性一方面体现了中药药理研究的复杂性,另一方面也再次佐证了中药作用的多环节和多靶点,注重整体调节。
5 糖尿病预防药物研究新技术除了上述机制研究中应用的高血糖钳夹技术、mRNA水平和蛋白水平检测等技术外,近年来一些新的技术,例如基因组学和代谢组学技术,也逐渐应用到DM前期干预的临床和临床前研究中。例如研究表明,基因组学、宏基因组学和代谢组学的生物标志物有可能用于DM和DM前期的诊断和发病机制的研究[68]。天芪降糖胶囊对IGT患者脂肪代谢组学研究表明,该药物能参与人体在磷脂、糖脂、核苷和肉碱等代谢水平的修复过程[69]。同时,RT-PCR基因芯片的研究表明,天芪降糖胶囊在KKAy小鼠的血糖降低机制可能与MAPK通路和GluT-4上调有关,通过下调炎症因子水平改善IR; 血脂改善可能与PPAR-α上调有关[70]。小鼠尿液的代谢组学研究表明,二甲双胍对小鼠的异常代谢产物有逆转的作用[71]。
DM的发病是多因素共同作用的结果。基因组学、转录组学、蛋白质组学与代谢组学等“组学 (Omics)”方法因其能较全面地研究基因、蛋白等的相互关系而从整体反映生物体的变化。因此,组学方法的应用可能更有助于全面地理解DM的病理变化,以及中药在其中发挥的作用,对于中药在DM预防领域的进一步应用有积极的意义。
6 展望目前,我国已成为世界DM第一大国,DM前期患者超过1.48亿[72]。因此对DM的预防刻不容缓。中药在对临床IGT患者的试验治疗中已显示出良好效应和优势,但在作用靶点和机制、疗程和评价标准、活性成分和安全性等方面需要深入系统研究。DM前期动物模型目前缺乏成熟的制备方法和合适的筛选标准,在一定程度上制约了DM前期预防药物的研发,这种现状急需改变。同时,患者一旦确诊DM,需终生治疗,极大增加了经济负担和精神压力,而且DM并发症多 (如冠心病、中风、失明和感染等),会造成残疾和早逝。因此,DM预防重于治疗。DM药物研发,应将重点从治疗药物向预防药物转移。药物干预在大型临床试验中证明对DM预防有效,但患者需要疗效更好、长期服用毒性更小、更安全的药物,热切期望我国传统医药宝库在DM预防领域早日传来佳音。
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