畜牧兽医学报  2017, Vol. 48 Issue (10): 1807-1814. DOI: 10.11843/j.issn.0366-6964.2017.10.003    PDF    
犬科与猫科动物肝簇虫病
吴怡然, 杨光友     
四川农业大学 动物医学院, 成都 611130
摘要:肝簇虫病是一种呈全球性广泛分布的寄生原虫病。该病主要通过吸血昆虫(蜱)传播,患病动物出现精神沉郁、厌食、消瘦、贫血及共济失调等症状。本文主要论述犬科及猫科动物肝簇虫病的病原、致病性与诊断方法,为我国犬科、猫科动物肝簇虫病的防控及相关研究提供参考。
关键词肝簇虫    犬肝簇虫    美洲犬肝簇虫    猫肝簇虫    野猫肝簇虫    原虫    
Hepatozoonosis in Canines and Felines
WU Yi-ran, YANG Guang-you     
College of Veterinary Medicine, Sichuan Agricultural University, Chengdu 611130, China
Abstract: Hepatozoonosis is a kind of parasitic disease which is caused by the apicomplexan parasites Hepatozooon that widely distribute in the world. They are mainly transmitted by hemophagia insects (e.g. ticks), resulting in a series of symptoms including depression, anorexia, emaciation, anemia and ataxia. Focusing on the pathogen, pathogenicity and diagnosis of the disease, this paper aims to provide a reference for the prevention and related research on canine and feline hepatozoonosis in our country.
Key words: Hepatozoon     Hepatozoon canis     Hepatozoon americanum     Hepatozoon felis     Hepatozoon silvestris     protozoan    

肝簇虫病(hepatozoonosis)是由顶复门(Apicomplexa)、真球虫目(Eucoccidiorida)、肝簇虫属(Hepatozoon)的原虫寄生于动物血液、内脏器官所引起的疾病[1-3]。肝簇虫属超过340个种,可感染两栖类、爬行类、鸟类和哺乳类,见于哺乳动物的约有50个种[4-5]

肝簇虫病主要通过吸血昆虫(蜱)传播,患病动物出现精神沉郁、厌食、消瘦、贫血及共济失调等症状。目前尚无特效治疗药物[6],仅能通过阿莫西林、环孢霉素、克林霉素及多西环素等抗菌药物配合糖皮质激素类、阿司匹林对症处理缓解症状[7-9]

1 病原

目前报道危害犬科动物的虫种为犬肝簇虫(H. canis)及美洲肝簇虫(H. americanum);猫科动物可感染猫肝簇虫(H. felis)、野猫肝簇虫(H. silvestris)及犬肝簇虫(H. canis)[1, 4-5, 10]

H. canisH. felis主要分布于欧洲、非洲、美洲及亚洲[11-33]H. americanum则主要分布于美洲[1, 17, 34-36]H. silvestris仅见于巴尔干半岛[4]。在我国目前仅在犬体内发现H. canis[37]

1.1 病原形态 1.1.1 犬肝簇虫(H. canis)

主要侵害中性粒细胞,虫血症水平一般较高。成熟配子体(gamont)长为5~7 μm,宽3~5 μm,呈胶囊样,寄生于中性粒细胞的细胞质,占据较大的空间,将细胞核挤至一侧或将其掩盖[38](图 1)。

箭头所指为犬肝簇虫配子体(Hemacolor染色,黑白照) The H.canis gamont is marked by an arrow(Hemacolor stain, black and white photo) 图 1 犬肝簇虫病血沉棕黄层涂片(M. T. Shimokawa等, 2011)[7] Figure 1 The smear of the buffy coat from the peripheral blood obtained from a H.canis infected dog (M. T. Shimokawa et al, 2011)[7]
1.1.2 美洲肝簇虫(H.americanum)

成熟配子体呈胶囊样,长约为8 μm,宽约为4 μm。该虫主要侵害单核细胞,寄生于细胞质中,有时被细胞核掩盖(图 2)。

箭头所指为美洲犬肝簇虫配子体(瑞-吉氏染色,黑白照) The H. americanum gamont is marked by an arrow(Wright-Giemsa stain, black and white photo) 图 2 美洲肝簇虫病的外周血涂片(C. A. Cummings等, 2005)[38] Figure 2 The peripheral blood film of H.americanum(C. A. Cummings et al, 2005)[38]
1.1.3 猫肝簇虫(H. felis)

配子体呈长椭圆形,长约为10 μm,中央有核;一般出现于中性粒细胞及单核细胞的细胞质中,将细胞中的分叶核挤至细胞一侧,具膜包被(图 3)。

箭头所指为猫肝簇虫配子体(迈格吉染色) The H.felis gamont is marked by an arrow (May Grunwald-Giemsa stain) 图 3 猫肝簇虫配子体(G. Baneth等, 2013)[5] Figure 3 Hepatozoon felis gamont(G. Baneth et al, 2013)[5]
1.1.4 野猫肝簇虫(H.silvestirs)

配子体在形态和遗传特点上与H.felis相差较大;配子体呈香蕉样,较细长,并且两端弯曲;长约为12 μm,宽约为5.5 μm[4](图 4)。

箭头所指为野猫肝簇虫配子体(迈格吉染色) The H.silvestris gamont is marked by an arrow (May Grunwald-Giemsa stain) 图 4 野猫肝簇虫配子体(A. Hodžić等, 2016年在线发表)[4] Figure 4 Gamont of H.silvestris (A. Hodžić et al, published online 2016)[4]
1.2 生物学

肝簇虫的生活史在传播媒介(蜱类)和脊椎动物体内完成;脊椎动物摄食带虫蜱类或者捕食带虫动物而感染[1, 7, 39];从犬科和猫科动物食入感染性卵囊到发育为成熟配子体一般需要28 d[40]

感染性卵囊经胃酸、胆汁作用后破裂,子孢子(sporozoite)逸出[38],经循环系统到达骨髓、脾、肺、肾、淋巴结等处寄生,并进行裂殖生殖[8, 11]。配子体被吸入蜱血腔后发育成熟,并发生配子生殖形成合子(zygote),合子经孢子生殖发育成为感染性卵囊[38]

犬肝簇虫的传播媒介为血红扇头蜱(Rhipicephalus sanguineus)[41],除南极洲外,该蜱在各大洲均有分布[42-43]。美洲肝簇虫的传播媒介为斑点钝眼蜱(Amblyomma maculatum)[44-45],主要分布于美国北部、墨西哥湾沿岸及大西洋沿岸[46]。传播途径主要为水平传播;此外H. canis还可通过胎盘发生垂直传播[11, 47]

2 致病性 2.1 临床症状 2.1.1 犬肝簇虫(H.canis)

感染动物一般呈亚临床症状[48];病情发展过程中临床症状不典型,只有在发生继发感染或混合感染后,动物才表现出不适[49],如与弓形虫、巴贝斯虫、细小病毒等病原混合感染、抵抗力下降之后,犬才开始表现症状[32, 50]

动物一般表现为厌食、消瘦、精神不振,偶有呕吐和腹泻等胃肠道症状;有时步履不稳,步态异常;眼部出现大量黏性分泌物[51];体重减轻、黏膜苍白、触诊有疼痛反应[52],偶有皮下出血、牙龈出血和腹部紫癜[7];当感染严重时机体发热,裂殖体侵害脏器时,相应功能遭到破坏:如侵害肾时,犬出现多尿及烦渴[53]

2.1.2 美洲肝簇虫(H. americanum)

该虫种致病力强,损伤大,临床症状明显[49, 54-55]。临床表现通常有发热、肢体僵硬、食欲减退、精神不振甚至昏睡;被毛粗乱无光[55];步态异常和眼部分泌物及黏液增多是经常出现且非常明显的两大特征[8]。由于其肌肉、骨骼损伤所带来的疼痛,使得病犬不愿活动;随着活动量和食量的减少,肌肉也会发生萎缩[55]

2.1.3 猫肝簇虫(H. felis)

该虫种是猫肝簇虫病的主要病原。猫肝簇虫病与犬肝簇虫病的临床症状相似,消化道症状如厌食、呕吐、腹泻;贫血、黏膜黄染;眼部分泌物增多,并伴有间歇性的发热[56];偶有跛行、共济失调[31]

2.2 病理变化 2.2.1 犬肝簇虫(H.canis)

该虫主要寄生于血液中的中性粒细胞、内脏器官及骨髓[57]。可出现血小板减少、贫血,血清肌酸激酶(CK)、碱性磷酸酶(ALP)浓度增高[8, 31, 58-59]。嗜中性粒细胞的数量随着寄生虫血症水平波动[57];一般虫血症水平在1%~5%,但在某些特殊病例中,虫血症水平甚至可以达到70%[23, 49, 60]

随着病情的发展,裂殖体寄生于内脏及骨髓,引起器官炎症、发生骨髓炎,影响机体的造血功能[7, 31];这可能也是造成犬黏膜苍白、皮下出血的原因。

骨组织经HE染色后可见裂殖体形成“轮辐”结构;此结构可以作为诊断犬肝簇虫病的标志之一[60](图 5)。

箭头所指为H. canis裂殖体内“轮辐”结构(HE染色,黑白照)[7] The "wheel-spoke" pattern in the H. canis meront is marked by an arrow (HE stain, black and white photo)[7] 图 5 骨髓组织病理标本显微照片(M. T. Shimokawa等, 2011)[7] Figure 5 Photomicrographs of bone marrow histopathology specimens (M. T. Shimokawa et al, 2011)[7]

H. americanumH. felis不同,H. canis还有可能进一步发展出现皮肤症状[1]:患处肿胀增生,表现瘙痒、脱毛,并伴随明显的波动感。

2.2.2 美洲肝簇虫(H. americanum)

虽然在单核细胞中寄生,但虫血症水平不高,一般只有0.5%。该虫通常引起白细胞数量持续性增多[39],血清中碱性磷酸酶含量升高,并伴有血清蛋白及白蛋白总数的下降,并发机体水肿,水肿部位主要集中于腹部,犬腹围增大、呼吸困难。

剖检后可见其淋巴结、脾等免疫器官轻微肿大。在组织器官的损伤当中,肌肉及骨的损伤最为明显:骨膜通常有明显的增生,骨的结构被破坏[1, 55];横纹肌有环状结构囊肿[38];由此引起犬出现步态僵硬、共济失调[61]

H. americanum在肌肉的寄生数量较多,在肌肉切片镜检中能够发现H. americanum特征性的“洋葱皮”样囊肿(图 6):大小在65 μm×55 μm左右,裂殖体在肌肉纤维中寄生,不断侵害周围组织,因此肌肉组织发生炎症反应,产生大量的黏多糖,在细胞周围层层包裹。这种特征性的病理变化可以作为诊断依据[45, 62-63]

OSC指“洋葱皮”样囊肿;C指宿主细胞;箭头所指为突出的核仁;矢状物所指为H. americanum滋养体(HE染色,黑白照) OSC indicates the "onion skin" shaped cysts; a canine host cell is shown by C; a prominent nucleolus is marked by an arrow; the trophozoite of H. Americanum is labled by an arrowhead (HE stain, black and white photo) 图 6 骨骼肌中的H.americanum囊肿(C. A. Cummings等, 2005)[38] Figure 6 Hepatozoon americanum cysts in skeletal muscle(C. A. Cummings et al, 2005)[38]

犬摄入感染了肝簇虫的蜱虫5周后就有可能检查出骨的病理变化[64],X光成像可见骨膜增生非常严重[49];可见其腿骨骨膜及周围软组织发生增厚和水肿,出现淤血点;在骨的横断面可见其中有偏离中心或者呈环状聚集形成的空斑;骨皮质的周围有厚度不一的骨松质沉着[54];骨质损伤主要集中于四肢近端骨,而病变最严重的一般是股骨及肱骨,对远端骨的破坏相对较少;扁骨的损伤情况最轻微[54, 65]

骨磨片镜检可发现骨膜深层发生肿胀,梭形的细胞核肿胀,逐渐变化成为星形,细胞活动活跃。细胞转变为多层排列并不断增生,附着在皮质骨表面[54]

2.2.3 猫肝簇虫(H.felis)

猫肝簇虫病血液生化检查可见嗜中性粒细胞数量上升,血清蛋白含量减少,并伴随着血小板含量的下降[15];有可能发生黄疸,可能是由于其红细胞被破坏或肝细胞发生损伤[56]。血清肌酸激酶、碱性磷酸酶浓度增高可能是由于骨骼肌或心肌裂殖体的寄生所致[15, 31]

肌肉切片镜检可见裂殖体形成的包囊;一般呈椭圆形或圆形,大小在64 μm ×75 μm到98 μm×122 μm之间,嗜酸性核被黏多糖物质包裹,周围结缔组织中有巨噬细胞浸润[66](图 7),其中裂殖体(schizont)一般为40 μm×35 μm大小[5]

箭头所指为“洋葱皮”样囊肿(HE染色) The "onion skin" shaped cysts is marked by an arrow (HE stain) 图 7 骨骼肌中的H. felis囊肿(F. Giannitti等, 2012)[66] Figure 7 Hepatozoon felis cysts in skeletal muscle (F. Giannitti et al, 2012)[66]
3 诊断

对肝簇虫的检测主要有病原学检测、分子检测、免疫学检测三种方法。免疫学检测主要是间接ELISA方法[67]

3.1 病原学检测

肝簇虫病的病原学检测手段主要集中于血涂片及肌肉切片镜检两种方式[1, 5, 7, 32, 38-39, 41, 45, 54-55, 62]

H. canis主要侵害中性粒细胞,配子体在其中寄生,这是它主要的病理变化之一,可以作为诊断依据。H. americanumH. felis虫血症水平不高,血涂片镜检效率较低,不能作为一种可信的检测手段。

H. canis可以通过骨组织形成的“轮辐”结构确诊;H. americanumH. felis可以通过肌肉组织内的“洋葱皮”样囊肿确诊。

3.2 分子检测

PCR技术是现有应用最广、可用来确诊肝簇虫病的方法之一[5, 19, 25, 30-31, 34, 43, 68]

检测主要针对虫体的18S rRNA基因,而提取DNA的样品有全血、棕黄层及骨髓,都可作为样品的来源,其中棕黄层和全血用作PCR样品的灵敏度、准确性最高[68]

4 结语

肝簇虫不仅影响动物的健康及正常活动,而且感染严重时可造成动物死亡。目前我国仅报道家犬感染犬肝簇虫,而对其他犬科、猫科动物的感染情况尚缺乏研究。认识该病的危害,加强我国犬科、猫科动物肝簇虫的检测与防控,将有助于动物的关爱及保护工作。

参考文献
[1] LITTLE L, BANETH G. Cutaneous Hepatozoon canis infection in a dog from New Jersey[J]. J Vet Diagn Invest, 2011, 23(3): 585–588. DOI: 10.1177/1040638711404156
[2] BANETH G, SAMISH M, SHKAP V. Life cycle of Hepatozoon canis (Apicomplexa: Adeleorina: Hepatozoidae) in the tick Rhipicephalus sanguineus and domestic dog (Canis familiaris)[J]. J Parasitol, 2007, 93(2): 283–299. DOI: 10.1645/GE-494R.1
[3] MELO A L T, WITTER R, MARTINS T F, et al. A survey of tick-borne pathogens in dogs and their ticks in the Pantanal biome, Brazil[J]. Med Vet Entomol, 2016, 30(1): 112–116. DOI: 10.1111/mve.2016.30.issue-1
[4] HODŽIĆ A, ALIĆ A, PRAŠOVIĆ S, et al. Hepatozoon silvestris sp. nov.: morphological and molecular characterization of a new species of Hepatozoon (Adeleorina: Hepatozoidae) from the European wild cat (Felis silvestris silvestris)[J]. Parasitology, 2017, 144(5): 650–661. DOI: 10.1017/S0031182016002316
[5] BANETH G, SHEINER A, EYAL O, et al. Redescription of Hepatozoon felis (Apicomplexa: Hepatozoidae) based on phylogenetic analysis, tissue and blood form morphology, and possible transplacental transmission[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2013, 6: 102. DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-102
[6] VINCENT-JOHNSON N, MACINTIRE D K, BANETH G. Canine hepatozoonosis: pathophysiology, diagnosis, and treatment[J]. Compend Contin Pract Vet, 1997, 19(1): 51–65.
[7] SHIMOKAWA M T, UMEKI S, BABA K, et al. Neutropenia associated with osteomyelitis due to Hepatozoon canis infection in a dog[J]. J Vet Med Sci, 2011, 73(10): 1389–1393. DOI: 10.1292/jvms.11-0202
[8] SAKUMA M, NAKAHARA Y, SUZUKI H, et al. A case report: a dog with acute onset of Hepatozoon canis infection[J]. J Vet Med Sci, 2009, 71(6): 835–838. DOI: 10.1292/jvms.71.835
[9] CRAIG T M, SMALLWOOD J E, KNAUER K W, et al. Hepatozoon canis infection in dogs: clinical, radiographic, and hematologic findings[J]. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 1978, 173(8): 967–972.
[10] WONG S S Y, POON R W S, HUI J J Y, et al. Detection of Babesia hongkongensis sp. nov. in a free-roaming Felis catus cat in Hong Kong[J]. J Clin Microbiol, 2012, 50(8): 2799–2803. DOI: 10.1128/JCM.01300-12
[11] CARDOSO L, CORTES H C E, EYAL O, et al. Molecular and histopathological detection of Hepatozoon canis in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Portugal[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2014, 7: 113. DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-113
[12] TABAR M D, ALTET L, FRANCINO O, et al. Vector-borne infections in cats: molecular study in Barcelona area (Spain)[J]. Vet Parasitol, 2008, 151(2-4): 332–336. DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2007.10.019
[13] DUSCHER G G, FUEHRER H P, KVBBER-HEISS A. Fox on the run-molecular surveillance of fox blood and tissue for the occurrence of tick-borne pathogens in Austria[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2014, 7: 521.
[14] IMRE M, DUDU A, ILIE M S, et al. Molecular survey of Hepatozoon canis in red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Romania[J]. J Parasitol, 2015, 101(4): 490–491. DOI: 10.1645/15-732.1
[15] KELLY P, MARABINI L, DUTLOW K, et al. Molecular detection of tick-borne pathogens in captive wild felids, Zimbabwe[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2014, 7: 514. DOI: 10.1186/s13071-014-0514-6
[16] CARDOSO L, OLIVEIRA A C, GRANADA S, et al. Molecular investigation of tick-borne pathogens in dogs from Luanda, Angola[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2016, 9: 252. DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1536-z
[17] GONÇALVES L R, FILGUEIRA K D, AHID S M M, et al. Study on coinfecting vector-borne pathogens in dogs and ticks in Rio Grande do Norte, Brazil[J]. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet, 2014, 23(3): 407–412. DOI: 10.1590/S1984-29612014071
[18] DE BORTOLI C P, ANDRÉ M R, BRAGA M D S C, et al. Molecular characterization of Hepatozoon sp. in cats from São Luís Island, Maranhão, Northeastern Brazil[J]. Parasitol Res, 2011, 109(4): 1189–1192. DOI: 10.1007/s00436-011-2376-6
[19] RAMOS C A D N, BABO-TERRA V J, PEDROSO T C, et al. Molecular identification of Hepatozoon canis in dogs from Campo Grande, Mato Grosso do Sul, Brazil[J]. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet, 2015, 24(2): 247–250. DOI: 10.1590/S1984-29612015019
[20] HARVEY T V, GUEDES P E, OLIVEIRA T N, et al. Canine hepatozoonosis in southeastern Bahia, Brazil[J]. Genet Mol Res, 2016, 15(3). DOI: 10.4238/gmr.15038623
[21] STARKEY L A, NEWTON K, BRUNKER J, et al. Prevalence of vector-borne pathogens in dogs from Haiti[J]. Vet Parasitol, 2016, 224: 7–12. DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.04.017
[22] KELLY P J, XU C L, LUCAS H, et al. Ehrlichiosis, babesiosis, anaplasmosis and hepatozoonosis in dogs from St. Kitts, West Indies[J]. PLoS One, 2013, 8(1): e53450. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0053450
[23] BANETH G, WEIGLER B. Retrospective case-control study of hepatozoonosis in dogs in Israel[J]. J Vet Intern Med, 1997, 11(6): 365–370. DOI: 10.1111/jvim.1997.11.issue-6
[24] FISHMAN Z, GONEN L, HARRUS S, et al. A serosurvey of Hepatozoon canis and Ehrlichia canis antibodies in wild red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) from Israel[J]. Vet Parasitol, 2004, 119(1): 21–26. DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2003.08.012
[25] ABD RANI P A M, IRWIN P J, COLEMAN G T, et al. A survey of canine tick-borne diseases in India[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2011, 4: 114. DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-114
[26] GARRETT J J, KOCAN A A, REICHARD M V, et al. Experimental infection of adult and juvenile coyotes with domestic dog and wild coyote isolates of Hepatozoon americanum (Apicomplexa: Adeleorina)[J]. J Wildlife Dis, 2005, 41(3): 588–592. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-41.3.588
[27] LIU M M, RUTTAYAPORN N, SAECHAN V, et al. Molecular survey of canine vector-borne diseases in stray dogs in Thailand[J]. Parasitol Int, 2016, 65(4): 357–361. DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2016.04.011
[28] INPANKAEW T, HⅡ S F, CHIMNOI W, et al. Canine vector-borne pathogens in semi-domesticated dogs residing in northern Cambodia[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2016, 9: 253. DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1552-z
[29] MAIA C, RAMOS C, COIMBRA M, et al. Bacterial and protozoal agents of feline vector-borne diseases in domestic and stray cats from southern Portugal[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2014, 7: 115. DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-115
[30] VILHENA H, MARTINEZ-DÍAZ V L, CARDOSO L, et al. Feline vector-borne pathogens in the north and centre of Portugal[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2013, 6: 99. DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-6-99
[31] SAKUMA M, NISHIO T, NAKANISHI N, et al. A case of Iriomote cat (Prionailurus bengalensis iriomotensis) with Hepatozoon felis parasitemia[J]. J Vet Med Sci, 2011, 73(10): 1381–1384. DOI: 10.1292/jvms.11-0210
[32] KUBO M, MIYOSHI N, YASUDA N. Hepatozoonosis in two species of Japanese wild cat[J]. J Vet Med Sci, 2006, 68(8): 833–837. DOI: 10.1292/jvms.68.833
[33] TATENO M, NISHIO T, MATSUO T, et al. Epidemiological survey of tick-borne protozoal infection in iriomote cats and tsushima leopard cats in Japan[J]. J Vet Med Sci, 2013, 75(7): 985–989. DOI: 10.1292/jvms.13-0015
[34] LI Y H, WANG C M, ALLEN K E, et al. Diagnosis of canine Hepatozoon spp. infection by quantitative PCR[J]. Vet Parasitol, 2008, 157(1-2): 50–58. DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.06.027
[35] KOCAN A A, BRESHEARS M, CUMMINGS C, et al. Naturally occurring hepatozoonosis in coyotes from Oklahoma[J]. J Wildlife Dis, 1999, 35(1): 86–89. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-35.1.86
[36] KOCAN A A, CUMMINGS C A, PANCIERA R J, et al. Naturally occurring and experimentally transmitted Hepatozoon americanum in coyotes from Oklahoma[J]. J Wildlife Dis, 2000, 36(1): 149–153. DOI: 10.7589/0090-3558-36.1.149
[37] XU D, ZHANG J L, SHI Z S, et al. Molecular detection of vector-borne agents in dogs from ten provinces of China[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2015, 8: 501. DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1120-y
[38] CUMMINGS C A, PANCIERA R J, KOCAN K M, et al. Characterization of stages of Hepatozoon americanum and of parasitized canine host cells[J]. Vet Pathol, 2005, 42(6): 788–796. DOI: 10.1354/vp.42-6-788
[39] JOHNSON E M, PANCIERA R J, ALLEN K E, et al. Alternate pathway of infection with Hepatozoon americanum and the epidemiologic importance of predation[J]. J Vet Int Med, 2009, 23(6): 1315–1318. DOI: 10.1111/jvim.2009.23.issue-6
[40] GAL A, HARRUS S, ARCOH I, et al. Coinfection with multiple tick-borne and intestinal parasites in a 6-week-old dog[J]. Can Vet J, 2007, 48(6): 619–622.
[41] D'WYER L H. Brazilian canine hepatozoonosis[J]. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet, 2011, 20(3): 181–193. DOI: 10.1590/S1984-29612011000300002
[42] HEKIMOLU O, SALAM K, ÖZER N, et al. New molecular data shed light on the global phylogeny and species limits of the Rhipicephalus sanguineus complex[J]. Ticks Tick-borne Dis, 2016, 7(5): 798–807. DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2016.03.014
[43] ROTONDANO T E D F, ALMEIDA H K A, KRAWCZAK F D S, et al. Survey of Ehrlichia canis, Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. in dogs from a semiarid region of Brazil[J]. Rev Bras Parasitol Vet, 2015, 24(1): 52–58. DOI: 10.1590/S1984-29612015011
[44] DUSCHER G G, LESCHNIK M, FUEHRER H P, et al. Wildlife reservoirs for vector-borne canine, feline and zoonotic infections in Austria[J]. Int J Parasitol Parasit Wildlife, 2015, 4(1): 88–96. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2014.12.001
[45] PANCIERA R J, MATHEW J S, CUMMINGS C A, et al. Comparison of tissue stages of Hepatozoon americanum in the dog using immunohistochemical and routine histologic methods[J]. Vet Pathol, 2001, 38(4): 422–426. DOI: 10.1354/vp.38-4-422
[46] CRISPELL G. Rickettsia parkeri colonization in Amblyomma maculatum: the role of superoxide dismutases[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2016, 9: 291. DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1579-1
[47] MURATA T, INOUE M, TATEYAMA S, et al. Vertical transmission of Hepatozoon canis in dogs[J]. J Vet Med Sci, 1993, 55(5): 867–868. DOI: 10.1292/jvms.55.867
[48] ELIAS E, HOMANS P A. Hepatozoon canis infection in dogs: clinical and haematological findings; treatment[J]. J Small Anim Pract, 1988, 29(1): 55–62. DOI: 10.1111/j.1748-5827.1988.tb02264.x
[49] LITTLE S E, ALLEN K E, JOHNSON E M, et al. New developments in canine hepatozoonosis in North America: a review[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2009, 2(S1): S5.
[50] SASANELLI M, PARADIES P, LUBAS G, et al. A typical clinical presentation of coinfection with Ehrlichia, Babesia and Hepatozoon species in a dog[J]. Vet Record, 2009, 164(1): 22–23. DOI: 10.1136/vr.164.1.22
[51] MUNDIM A V, DE MORAIS I A, TAVARES M, et al. Clinical and hematological signs associated with dogs naturally infected by Hepatozoon sp. and with other hematozoa: a retrospective study in Uberlandia, Minas Gerais, Brazil[J]. Vet Parasitol, 2008, 153(1-2): 3–8. DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2008.01.018
[52] PALUDO G R, DELL'PORTO A, TRINDADE A R D C E, et al. Hepatozoon spp.: report of some cases in dogs in Brasília, Brazil[J]. Vet Parasitol, 2003, 118(3-4): 243–248. DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2003.10.009
[53] GONDIM L F P, KOHAYAGAWA A, ALENCAR N X, et al. Canine hepatozoonosis in Brazil: description of eight naturally occurring cases[J]. Vet Parasitol, 1998, 74(2-4): 319–323. DOI: 10.1016/S0304-4017(96)01120-X
[54] PANCIERA R J, MATHEW J S, EWING S A, et al. Skeletal lesions of canine hepatozoonosis caused by Hepatozoon americanum[J]. Vet Pathol, 2000, 37(3): 225–230. DOI: 10.1354/vp.37-3-225
[55] EWING S A, PANCIERA R J. American canine hepatozoonosis[J]. Clin Microbiol Rev, 2003, 16(4): 688–697. DOI: 10.1128/CMR.16.4.688-697.2003
[56] BANETH G, AROCH I, TAL N, et al. Hepatozoon species infection in domestic cats: a retrospective study[J]. Vet Parasitol, 1998, 79(2): 123–133. DOI: 10.1016/S0304-4017(98)00160-5
[57] BANETH G, MATHEW J S, SHKAP V, et al. Canine hepatozoonosis: two disease syndromes caused by separate Hepatozoon spp[J]. Trends Parasitol, 2003, 19(1): 27–31. DOI: 10.1016/S1471-4922(02)00016-8
[58] BANETH G, MACINTIRE D. Hepatozoonosis[M]//GREEN C E. Infectious diseases of the dog and cat. 3rd ed. St Louis, MO: Saunders Elsevier, 2005: 698-711.
[59] KAUR P, DESHMUKH S, SINGH R, et al. Para-clinico-pathological observations of insidious incidence of canine hepatozoonosis from a mongrel dog: a case report[J]. J Parasit Dis, 2012, 36(1): 135–138. DOI: 10.1007/s12639-011-0092-x
[60] BANETH G, HARMELIN A, PRESENTEY B Z. Hepatozoon canis infection in two dogs[J]. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 1995, 206(12): 1891–1894.
[61] MACINTIRE D K, VINCENT-JOHNSON N, DILLON A R, et al. Hepatozoonosis in dogs: 22 cases (1989-1994)[J]. J Am Vet Med Assoc, 1997, 210(7): 916–922.
[62] PANCIERA R J, EWING S A, MATHEW J S, et al. Canine hepatozoonosis: comparison of lesions and parasites in skeletal muscle of dogs experimentally or naturally infected with Hepatozoon americanum[J]. Vet Parasitol, 1999, 82(4): 261–272. DOI: 10.1016/S0304-4017(99)00029-1
[63] VINCENT-JOHNSON N A, MACINTIRE D K, LINDSAY D S, et al. A new Hepatozoon species from dogs: description of the causative agent of canine hepatozoonosis in North America[J]. J Parasitol, 1997, 83(6): 1165–1172. DOI: 10.2307/3284379
[64] CUMMINGS C A. A morphologic and immunologic study of American canine hepatozoonosis[D]. Stillwater, Oklahoma: Oklahoma State University, 2001.
[65] DROSTY W T, CUMMINGS C A, MATHEW J S, et al. Determination of time of onset and location of early skeletal lesions in young dogs experimentally infected with Hepatozoon americanum using bone scintigraphy[J]. Vet Radiol Ultrasound, 2003, 44(1): 86–91. DOI: 10.1111/vru.2003.44.issue-1
[66] GIANNITTI F, DIAB S S, UZAL F A, et al. Infection with a Hepatozoon sp. closely related to Hepatozoon felis in a wild Pampas gray fox (Lycalopex -Pseudalopex -gymnocercus) co-infected with canine distemper virus[J]. Vet Parasitol, 2012, 186(3-4): 497–502. DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.11.006
[67] MATHEW J S, SALIKI J T, EWING S A, et al. An indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for diagnosis of American canine hepatozoonosis[J]. J Vet Diagn Invest, 2001, 13(1): 17–21. DOI: 10.1177/104063870101300104
[68] OTRANTO D, DANTAS-TORRES F, WEIGL S, et al. Diagnosis of Hepatozoon canis in young dogs by cytology and PCR[J]. Parasit Vectors, 2011, 4: 55. DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-55