2. 海底科学与探测技术教育部重点实验室, 山东 青岛 266100 ;
3. 青岛海洋科学与技术国家实验室海洋地质功能实验室, 山东 青岛 266100
2. Key Lab of Submarine Geosciences and Prospecting Technique, Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, Shandong, China ;
3. Laboratory for Marine Geology, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266100, Shandong, China
0 引言
早古生代处于一特殊的地史时期,是新元古代罗迪尼亚(Rodinia)超大陆裂解和晚古生代潘吉亚超大陆(Pangea,也有人称为盘古超大陆)聚合的重要承接时期。罗迪尼亚超大陆裂解后,陆块数量增多,尤以微陆块众多,主要板块或作为整体或独自进行运动,各种尺度的板块运动进入活跃阶段。其清晰的演化过程及洋—陆格局重建是厘定板块构造旋回、深刻认识板块旋回机制的关键环节。超大陆聚合的研究主要立足于板块的古地磁、造山带增生-碰撞历史两大方面[1],由此可以恢复和制约不同板块的运动轨迹及其聚合历史。碰撞造山是离散板块的一种重要聚集方式。前人对板块重建的研究也揭示了全球尺度碰撞造山带,造山带对比和重建可以揭示陆块的聚集过程,如2.1~1.8 Ga古元古代造山带全球对比,揭示了Columbia超大陆的聚集[2-3]; 1.2~1.0 Ga新元古代不同陆块上残存的Grenville造山带的统一重建, 揭示了Rodinia超大陆的集结[4]。而大量地质事实揭示,新元古代晚期—早古生代期间,同样发生了全球性造山运动,全球板块经历的重大构造事件使洋—陆构造格局发生了巨变,陆块主体经历了离散状态到汇聚状态的转变,板块构造运动复杂多样,出现具有全球准同时性的俯冲增生、碰撞、陆内3种造山类型,如北方大陆聚合的加里东碰撞造山带、南方大陆聚合的泛非碰撞造山带、外缘增生造山带、古亚洲洋南部洋盆俯冲消减和微陆块拼合增生导致的天山增生造山带、原特提斯洋中华南陆块内部的华夏和扬子微陆块之间的陆内造山带[5-6]。因而,也有人提出过早古生代存在超大陆的可能。为了深入认识碰撞型造山在早古生代的特殊性和重要性,因此,本文系统收集和整理了全球碰撞造山带最新资料,下文分区域和关联性进行阐述,试图基于全球新元古代晚期—早古生代碰撞造山带及其对比研究,来探讨其在全球的早古生代板块重建和超大陆旋回探索中的意义,侧重大板块间的相互作用研究。
1 环北大西洋—北冰洋加里东造山带现今的北大西洋由早古生代的亚匹特斯洋(Iapetus)演化而来。亚匹特斯洋盆于~420 Ma完全闭合,形成加里东造山带。中生代晚期北大西洋打开,导致加里东造山带现今分布于北大西洋东、西两岸。该区域的陆块主要有包括北美和格陵兰板块的劳伦古陆、波罗的陆块、阿瓦隆尼亚(Avalonia)微陆块或地体群、巴伦支海微陆块等(图 1)。环北大西洋—北冰洋沿岸是加里东造山带研究的起源地,亚匹特斯洋闭合,导致陆-陆碰撞,形成的加里东造山带被前人称为经典加里东造山带。除了经典加里东造山带外,该区域在波兰—德国北部的中欧地区还发育范围相对较窄的中欧缝合带,性质与经典加里东造山带有所不同,为微陆块与大陆块碰撞所致。
通过对一系列碰撞标志的最新年代学数据(表 1)统计分析,经典加里东造山带(图 1)具有准同时碰撞造山特征:东格陵兰加里东造山带位于劳伦古陆(也称陆块、大陆)格陵兰东北部,陆-陆碰撞造山发生于439~408 Ma;斯堪的纳维亚造山带位于波罗的陆块的挪威西部,陆-陆碰撞造山发生于445~410 Ma;斯瓦尔巴特(Svalbard)造山带位于波罗的陆块以北的现今巴伦支海板块边缘(早古生代时为巴伦支海陆块),碰撞造山发生于475~420 Ma;英国西北部的加里东造山带,其地体的亲缘性较复杂,为阿瓦隆尼亚微陆块、岛弧、劳伦古陆以及波罗的陆块之间的复杂微陆块-岛弧-大陆块增生-碰撞造山带,造山时限为490~390 Ma;中欧加里东期缝合带,主要分布于北德国—波兰、丹麦以及法国一带,代表了阿瓦隆尼亚微陆块与波罗的陆块之间通奎斯特洋(Tornquist)的闭合,发生时限为450~440 Ma;阿帕拉契亚造山带位于北美板块东缘(图 2),在早古生代的490~410 Ma时间段内表现为北美克拉通与岛弧、阿瓦隆尼亚、卡罗莱纳(Carolina)、卡多姆、Meguma等微陆块的增生碰撞造山。
造山带 | 岩性 | 采样点 | 所属地体 | 年龄/Ma | 测年方法 | 参考文献 |
东格陵兰陆- 陆碰撞造山带, 作用陆块: 劳伦古陆和 波罗的陆块 | 榴辉岩 | Liverpool land (造山带南部) | Tvaerdal杂岩 | 409~403 | U-Pb | [7] |
Jaettedal杂岩 | 438~435 | U-Pb | [7] | |||
Huny Inlet杂岩 | 432~417 | U-Pb | [7] | |||
Danmarkshavn (造山带北部) | 格陵兰北部榴辉岩省 | 439 | Sm-Nd | [8] | ||
405~370 | Sm-Nd | [8] | ||||
377 | SHRIMP | [8] | ||||
414~393 | [9] | |||||
360(UHP) | [9] | |||||
云母(角闪岩相) | Danmarkshavn | 格林兰北部榴辉岩省 | 376~330 | Rb-Sr | [8] | |
S型花岗岩 | Kong Oscar Fojord | 930 | [9] | |||
435 | [9] | |||||
同碰撞浅色 花岗岩体 | Fjord Region (N72rd R) | 425 | [9] | |||
钙碱性花岗岩 | Liverpool land | Hurry Inlet | 446 | [10] | ||
深成岩地体 | 438 | [10] | ||||
Hodal-Storefjord | 426~424 | [10] | ||||
侵入体 |
东格陵兰加里东造山带位于格陵兰半岛东部,呈NE走向,延伸范围70°N到82°N (图 1),长约1 300 km,地壳垂向增厚达42~44 km,发育大规模的褶皱推覆体、逆冲断层,是由劳伦古陆和波罗的陆块左旋斜向汇聚造成的,而后在早泥盆世发生左旋张扭作用[12-13],进入造山后伸展阶段。造山带的西部受加里东期造山运动影响微弱,但有构造窗出现,前陆盆地局部也出露花岗岩,出露的基底显示造山带基底主要为新太古代和古元古代长英质正片麻岩[9],北段基底年代稍晚于南段,并且出露大量碱性花岗岩[14-15]。
格陵兰东部经历多次开合过程,中元古代和中生代为裂谷环境,古元古代和早古生代为造山环境。造山带南部广泛发育新元古代磨拉石建造的Eleonore Bay群变沉积岩,Tillite群的变质碎屑岩、冰碛岩,上部为被动陆缘沉积的寒武—奥陶纪碳酸盐岩,可能与亚匹特斯洋的打开有关[16-17]。早古生代地层发生褶皱,局部地区变形强烈,加里东期碰撞花岗岩发育并经历了广泛的高级变质作用。中生代后北大西洋打开,出现大量大洋盆性质的玄武质火山岩[16-18]。造山带东北部主要出露新元古代—志留纪沉积岩以及古元古代—中元古代沉积岩和玄武岩,说明劳伦古陆造山带东北部在中元古代为裂谷环境,Nathorst Land群沉积岩卷入了加里东造山运动,发生428 Ma的变质作用[19]。东格陵兰褶皱带发育425 Ma的同构造熔融事件[20]。
Dronning Louise Land构造窗为该地区重要的加里东变形区,Storstrommen左旋剪切带(SSZ)将其与东部海岸沉积盆地分隔开,一条南北向的俯冲带将该构造窗分成加里东期变形强弱不同的东西两部分,即东部强、西部弱[21]。位于造山带中部的Central Fjord地区在加里东期受E—W向的挤压收缩,中地壳物质于425 Ma发生南北向的同构造侧向挤出,伴随大量南北轴向的褶皱,主要的断层在424 Ma由造山后垮塌或同造山伸展作用重新活化[20, 22]。总体上,该带发育439~414 Ma、409~360 Ma两期榴辉岩,晚志留世的榴辉岩相变质与同时期的S型花岗岩相对应,含蓝晶石的超高压榴辉岩表明变质程度从高压变质转变为超高压变质,说明了东格陵兰从俯冲到碰撞经历了长时间的进变质作用(表 1)。
1.2 斯堪的纳维亚加里东造山带斯堪的纳维亚加里东造山带位于波罗的陆块西缘,最宽处约350 km。可将其分为原地地体和下部、中部、上部、顶部4个推覆体[23-24](图 1)。中部和下部地体包括古生代结晶岩席和新元古代硅质碎屑岩,代表波罗的板块的基底和向海部分的沉积岩。上部和顶部的地体包括新元古代—古生代沉积岩、火山弧岩浆杂岩和蛇绿混杂岩;其中,上部地体由波罗的板块的最外缘和Iapetus残留洋壳组成,顶部地体沉积序列和波罗的板块明显不同,C和Sr同位素地球化学特征表明其为劳伦古陆的碎块,早期发育倾向NW的逆冲断层[24-27]。
中部地体的Juton推覆体主要由陆壳组成,于志留纪南东向推覆于波罗的陆块之上,两者之间以新元古代—早古生代滑脱构造带分隔开。北倾的S型花岗岩脉显示推覆作用发生年龄约为427 Ma[28],滑脱构造带的千枚岩Ar-Ar年龄显示402~394 Ma逆冲挤压转变为造山垮塌阶段的拉伸构造[29]。上部地体Köli推覆体在晚Arenig阶之前就位到波罗的陆块边缘之上,MORB型Vågåmo蛇绿岩与波罗的板块的粗碎屑岩和结晶岩以断层接触,含485~464 Ma波罗的和劳伦古陆混合动物群化石的砾岩层呈角度不整合覆盖其上[30-31]。而上部地体的Støren和Meråker推覆体发育早奥陶世493~480 Ma代表洋中脊和岛弧的铁镁质—中酸性火成岩,含443~428 Ma笔石类化石的浊积岩。
斯堪的纳维亚造山带的岩石特征如表 2。该造山带发育一条蛇绿混杂岩带,蛇绿岩代表的洋盆年龄大致为新元古代晚期—早奥陶世早期,487 Ma SSZ型枕状玄武岩和493~480 Ma岛弧火山岩表明亚匹特斯洋于晚寒武—早奥陶世开始俯冲,486~485 Ma的混合动物群说明劳伦古陆和波罗的陆块中间的亚匹特斯洋已经消减到很小的范围了。榴辉岩分布广泛,变质年龄在505~391 Ma之间,温压变化范围大可大致分为3期:早中奥陶世的冷俯冲型榴辉岩;晚奥陶世弧-陆碰撞相关的含蓝晶石超高压榴辉岩,且具有北早南新的特点;中晚志留世—中晚泥盆世的陆-陆碰撞超高压榴辉岩。西部片麻岩区(Western Gneiss Region, WGR, 图 1)的超高压岩石经历了400~380 Ma的长期折返过程[42]。同时,造山带内晚志留世的S型花岗岩发育,推覆体出露晚寒武—早奥陶世的岛弧火山岩。因此,该造山带经历了自北往南的剪刀式斜向弧-陆碰撞和陆-陆碰撞。
岩性 | 采样点 | 所属地体 | 年龄/Ma | 测年方法 | 参考文献 |
同碰撞层状铁镁质侵入岩 | Trondheim以南 | 上部地体侵入体 | 426 | [32] | |
拉斑玄武岩 | Sørøy岛最南端 | 中部地体(Hasvik层状侵入体) | 700 | [32] | |
层状侵入体 | Stavanger东南 | Bjerkreim-Sokndal层状侵入体 | 930~920 | [32] | |
S型花岗岩脉 | 中部地体Juton推覆体 | 427 | U-Pb TIMS | [32] | |
榴辉岩 | Norrtotten | 上部地体的Seve推覆体北部 | 505~482(UHP) | Sm-Nd/U-Pb | [33] |
491 | Ar-Ar | [34] | |||
Jämtland | 上部地体的Seve推覆体南部 | 460~445(UHP) | Sm-Nd/U-Pb | [35] | |
下部地体北部的Jæren推覆体 | 470~455 | Lu-Hf/Sm-Nd | [35] | ||
下部地体南部的Tromø推覆体 | 452(UHP) | U-Pb | [35] | ||
下部地体的西部片麻岩区域 | 422~369(UHP) | Lu-Hf/Sm-Nd | [36] | ||
415~397 | U-Pb zircon | [27] | |||
415(柯石英相) | U-Pb | [27] | |||
400~380 | Ar-Ar | [37] | |||
Lindas推覆体 | 460~430 | [37] | |||
辉绿岩(MORB?) | 上部地体的Seve推覆体 | 573 | Sm-Nd | [38] | |
N-MORB型枕状玄武岩(SSZ) | 上部地体(蛇绿混杂岩) | 487 | U-Pb | [39] | |
蛇绿岩 | 上部地体Köli推覆体 | 447~443 | [39] | ||
斜长花岗岩(SSZ) | Trondheim地区 | 487~481 | [40] | ||
蓝片岩 | 西部片麻岩区Trondheim地体 | 早—中奥陶世 | [41] | ||
岛弧火山岩 | 上部地体的Meråker推覆体 | 493~480 | [39] | ||
未成熟弧岩浆 | 上部地体(Fongen-Hyllingen辉长杂岩) | 早—中奥陶世 | [39] | ||
劳伦古陆和波罗的的混合动物群 | 上部地体Köli推覆体 | 485~464 | [31] |
Svalbard群岛现今位于巴伦支海的西北角和欧洲板块之间,与巴伦支海陆架的西部具有相同的加里东期基底和后期的沉积岩盖层,属于巴伦支微陆块露出海面的部分,南北向断裂带将Svalbard地区分为西北、东北、西南3个具有不同岩石组合的地体[43],都经历了晚奥陶世—志留纪的构造-热事件,在加里东运动期间,巴伦支海微陆块与波罗的陆块、格陵兰地盾东北部汇聚,是亚匹特斯洋闭合的地方[44]。前人研究[45-46]认为,前加里东期其可能为独立的微陆块或属于北东格陵兰陆块中部的一部分或不同的岩石地体具有不同的来源,如东北和西北地体原属于格陵兰陆块东北,西南地体来源Pearya Land。沉积岩盖层中新元古代—早奥陶世低级变质沉积岩占约60%[45],地台型石炭纪及更年轻地层覆盖于褶皱了的晚志留世—中泥盆世老红色砂岩(ORS)之上[46]。
西北部和东北部地体早古生代地层包含文德期冰碛岩、北美型动物群及以碳酸盐为主的寒武纪地层。西北部地区主要由475 Ma蓝片岩-榴辉岩相中高级变质岩组成[45-48];东北地体经历格林威尔和加里东两期造山运动,450~410 Ma期间发生绿片岩相变质作用和深熔型花岗岩作用,产出轴向近南北的直立褶皱或轻微西倾褶皱,与东格陵兰的中部地层具有相似性[44];西南地区局部发育榴辉岩和蓝片岩,发育奥陶纪不整合[46]。造山带的岩石特征如表 3所示,发生了中奥陶世和晚志留世—早泥盆世两期榴辉岩-蓝片岩相变质作用。其中,中奥陶世的高压变质作用和Billefjorden断裂带的糜棱岩变形年龄一致,晚志留世—早泥盆世的变质程度较弱,与同时期的磨拉石建造共同代表了加里东造山运动的痕迹。Biscayarhalvoya晚志留世砾岩沉积前的榴辉岩挤出作用, 暗示了块体相互作用于志留纪转变为碰撞,与阿帕拉契亚造山带的Taconic造山期对应[54]。
岩性 | 采样点 | 所属地体 | 年龄/Ma | 测年方法 | 参考文献 |
蛇绿岩 | Ellesmere Island | Pearya地体 | 480 | [49] | |
榴辉岩-蓝片岩 | Motalafjella | Spitsbergen西部 | 474~457 | Rb-Sr | [50] |
475 | U-Pb | [32] | |||
461 | Ar-Ar | [50] | |||
425~400 | Rb-Sr | [51] | |||
蓝片岩 | Nordenskiold land | 中西部Svalbard | 早—中奥陶世 | [52] | |
角闪岩相 | Biscayarhalvoya | Spitsbergen西北 | 430~420 | Ar-Ar | [51] |
Richarddalen Group | 430~420 | Rb-Sr | [50] | ||
地壳重熔型岩浆 | Nordaustlande地体 | 450~410 | U-Pb/Pb-evap | [44] | |
960~940 | U-Pb/Pb-evap | ||||
糜棱岩 | Billefjorden断裂带 | 450 | [53] | ||
陆相磨拉石建造 | 北西地体 | 晚志留世—早泥盆世 |
英国加里东期造山带是阿瓦隆尼亚微陆块、Midland Valley岛弧(MVT)和劳伦古陆以及波罗的陆块复杂相互作用的结果,分别以Iapetus缝合带和莫英俯冲带为南北界线,Highland边界断层再将其分为北部470~460 Ma变质变形强烈的正构造高区域(orthotectonic zone)和南部晚志留—早泥盆世左旋压扭环境下的低级变质作用发育的副构造低区域(paratectonic zone)[11, 55-56]。英国加里东期造山运动期间发育奥陶—志留纪和志留纪—早泥盆世的早晚两期花岗岩:470~455 Ma,与弧-陆碰撞相关的S型花岗岩,主要分布在北部高级构造区域;峰值大致为410 Ma的加里东晚期亚匹特斯洋俯冲产生的I型花岗岩,并发育少量S型花岗岩(表 4),主要沿Highland边界断层以南的左旋走滑断层分布,在苏格兰南部的Iapetus缝合带附近也有分布[56-57, 59]。在亚匹特斯洋关闭的最后阶段,变质作用伴随着深成作用发生,变质程度为沸石相-绿片岩相,局部达到榴辉岩相。中志留世—中泥盆世期的老红色砾岩角度不整合于早古生代地层之上。
前人通过对英国加里东造山带的变质变形及岩浆作用的研究,将英国的加里东造山运动大致分为3个阶段[58, 61]:Grampian阶段(480~465 Ma)是苏格兰加里东造山带主要的收缩阶段,在北爱尔兰蛇绿岩仰冲就位于490~470 Ma,为劳伦古陆和Midland Valley岛弧碰撞引起,发生喜马拉雅型地壳增厚,变质作用主要为碰撞造山带典型的巴罗型中压高温变质;465~435 Ma期间的Caradoc阶段主要发生安第斯山型陆壳俯冲并达到了一定深度、均衡调整、减压熔融和剥蚀作用,为Southern Uplands地体沉积物来源,此时英国Grampian、Middle Valley和Southern Uplands地体已经拼合;而435~395 Ma,Iapetus洋俯冲至闭合,阿瓦隆尼亚微陆块与其拼贴,地壳隆升。
1.5 中欧加里东造山带中欧加里东造山带位于欧洲华力西造山带北部,主要指北德国—波兰、丹麦以及法国一带相对较窄的加里东期变形变质带,为Tornquist洋消亡、阿瓦隆尼亚微陆块和波罗的板块碰撞的结果。北界为早古生代Tornquist-Teisseyre缝合带(T-TZ)。地球物理特征表明, Tornquist洋具有向NE和SW的双向俯冲特征[62-63],发育倾向SW的右旋走滑断层。其西延为晚古生代—中生代Sorgenfrei-Tornquist Zone (S-TZ)[64-65],截止于Iapetus缝合带,造山带东侧毗邻东阿瓦隆尼亚微陆块的Carpathians地区[62-63](图 1)。
表 5列出了中欧加里东期造山带主要特征,发育两期榴辉岩相变质作用:一期为440~400 Ma超高压—高压变质,原岩为490~460 Ma,角闪岩相退变质过程发生在360~340 Ma;另一期为500~460 Ma高压变质。Vecoli[78]根据微体浮游生物Llanvirn期疑源类化石,认为阿瓦隆尼亚微陆块于Caradoc阶开始从冈瓦纳裂离;而晚Ashgill阶(437 Ma),中欧缝合线两侧的几丁石化石几乎是一致的,暗示了阿瓦隆尼亚微陆块和波罗的板块之间Tornquist洋已经消亡;且东欧地台Ashgill阶沉积地层中出现了亲冈瓦纳的疑源类化石。因此,Tornquist洋的消亡,阿瓦隆尼亚微陆块和波罗的板块的碰撞应发生在中、晚奥陶世[78]。古地磁数据也显示, 阿瓦隆尼亚和波罗的陆块的磁移曲线在志留纪446~421 Ma期间开始重合[65]。而在石炭纪末,因华力西造山运动向北收缩,使德国、丹麦、挪威和瑞典南部产生众多局部的裂谷和伸展盆地[79-83]。
岩性 | 所属地体 | 年龄/Ma | 测年方法 | 变质相 | 参考文献 |
榴辉岩 | French Massif Central | 432 | U-Pb | [66-67] | |
415 | U-Pb zircon | [66-67] | |||
408 | Sm/Nd | [66-67] | |||
417 | U-Pb | ||||
412±10 | LA-ICP-MS | UHP | [68] | ||
489~475 | zircons | 原岩 | [68] | ||
法国Armorican地体 | 439±13 | U-Pb zircon | [69] | ||
NE Sardinian | 460 | U-Pb | 原岩 | [70] | |
350 | LA-ICP-MS | 高温角闪岩相 | [70] | ||
400 | SHRIMP U-Pb | 榴辉岩相 | [71] | ||
Maures地块 | 452~395 | U-Pb | [71] | ||
Alpine基底(B type) | 420~395 | U-Pb | [71] | ||
500~460 | [72] | ||||
Bohemian地体 | 400/390~370/340 | [73] | |||
Western Iberian地体 | 418~363/406~383/ | SHRIMP/ | [73-74] | ||
391~370/365~350 | 40Ar-39Ar | ||||
Brittany | 436 | U-Pb zircon | [73-74] | ||
439 | [73-74] | ||||
Saxonian和Erzgebirge 杂岩的云母片岩-榴辉岩 | 355~330 | 40Ar-39Ar | [75-77] | ||
磁移曲线 | 阿瓦隆尼亚、波罗的陆块 | 446~421拼合 | [65] | ||
Llanvirn期 疑源类化石 | 阿瓦隆尼亚微陆块 | Caradoc阶从冈瓦纳裂离 | [78] | ||
几丁石化石 | 中欧缝合线两侧 | 晚Ashgill阶(437) | [78] |
阿帕拉契亚造山带位于北美克拉通东缘,呈NE—SW走向,通常以纽约、弗吉尼亚为界分为北、中、南阿帕拉契亚[77] (图 2)。西南毗邻Ouachita造山带,King[84]根据Ouachita造山带构造特征认为其是阿帕拉契亚造山带在西南方向的延伸。阿帕拉契亚造山带具有多阶段的造山过程,地体亲缘性显示,该造山带早古生代为北美克拉通与环冈瓦纳大陆北缘阿瓦隆尼亚、卡罗莱纳、卡多姆和Meguma地体碰撞的结果,其中卡罗莱纳地区变质变形具有连续性,一直持续到280 Ma,期间没有裂解或双峰式火山岩的裂谷记录。
北美克拉通东缘在罗迪尼亚裂解后到最终的陆-陆碰撞造山经历了以下几个阶段:800~700 Ma裂谷环境,晚前寒武—早寒武世被动大陆边缘的伸展阶段,奥陶纪弧-陆碰撞造山阶段,泥盆—早石炭世地体持续拼贴阶段,晚石炭—二叠纪陆-陆碰撞收缩变形[11, 85]。
北阿帕拉契亚被动大陆边缘在中—晚奥陶纪(Taconic)转变为了活动大陆边缘,晚志留世(Acadian)造山运动主导了北阿帕拉契亚地区[86]。Dunnage带为北阿帕拉契亚造山带典型地区,中奥陶—早志留世的Red Indian Line缝合线将Dunnage带分成Notre Dame (鹿特丹)和Exploits两段:西北的鹿特丹段发育志留纪不整合,含Arenig阶低纬度亲劳伦动物群;东南的Exploits发育奥陶—志留纪的连续地层,含Arenig阶高纬度环冈瓦纳动物群[87]。Red Indian Line缝合线的蛇绿岩、钙碱性火山岩年龄以及变形研究表明,冲断作用发生在467~462 Ma,晚志留纪转变为右旋走滑断层[88]。中—南阿帕拉契亚造山带寒武纪之后经历了Taconic、Acadian、Alleghanian三期造山运动。480~435 Ma的Taconic造山运动影响广泛,奥陶纪、志留纪深成岩体与弧-陆碰撞的逆冲推覆作用相关[89],Blue Ridge-Piedmont逆冲岩席向前推覆至少250 km,出露459~394 Ma高压榴辉岩[90],在Blue Ridge、Inner Piedmont、Charlotte和卡罗莱纳等地区发生区域性绿片岩相和角闪岩相变质[91]。Acadian运动(410~340 Ma)表现为多阶段的地体拼贴,主要影响中阿帕拉契亚地区,发生强烈变形和区域性收缩性走滑作用,志留纪-早泥盆世地层和上覆地层以不整合面接触,造山带西部发育中—晚泥盆世磨拉石[92]。Alleghanian(330~230 Ma)运动为劳伦古陆和西非克拉通之间的全面碰撞阶段[93]。
2 泛非造山带泛非造山运动导致了冈瓦纳大陆的早古生代聚合,在晚新元古代—早寒武世之间表现为大陆块之间的陆-陆碰撞造山过程和大量新生地壳增加的增生-碰撞造山带(图 3)(对应Sengor[95]两分法中的阿尔泰型或突厥型造山带),时代要早于加里东期造山带。首先是非洲和南美大陆块之间的碰撞造山带主要导致Brazilides洋闭合和西冈瓦纳拼合的Brasiliano造山带形成,其碰撞过程包括多个阶段,时代主要为850~540 Ma。Kuunga造山带由Meert等[96], Meert[97]和Meert和Lieberman[98]基于古地磁证据和麻粒岩相变质证据提出,为南极—澳大利亚、印度、卡拉哈里以及刚果克拉通碰撞形成,其时代晚于Brasiliano和东非造山带,大致在570~530 Ma。现Kuunga造山带范围和性质研究仍具有争议,对其性质存在活化的造山带和碰撞造山带两种认识。近南北走向、南窄北宽的东非造山带为增生-碰撞造山带,形成时代大致为800~600 Ma,且东非造山带北部的阿拉伯—努比亚地盾(Arabian-Nubian Shield,ANS)和南部的莫桑比克带具有明显区别,可以将其分为两次造山运动。同时,东冈瓦纳主要由南极、印度、澳大利亚大陆块及一些微陆块经历了复杂多期的聚合而统一形成。最后,泛非晚期运动(530~500 Ma)将东、西冈瓦纳沿莫桑比克带聚合为冈瓦纳大陆(图 3)。
2.1 Brasiliano造山带罗迪尼亚超大陆裂解后,西冈瓦纳在聚合过程中Brazilides洋闭合,圣弗朗西斯科—刚果、卡拉哈里和亚马逊—西非、拉普拉塔克拉通之间发生碰撞,形成Brasiliano造山带[99]。Brasiliano造山带北部~900 Ma的裂谷作用和~800 Ma的蛇绿岩标志新元古代Brazilides洋盆的存在[100-101]。古地磁数据显示Brazilides洋于约630 Ma闭合,碰撞持续到寒武纪[4, 102-105]。Brissilina造山带可分为七部分(图 4),并向南可延伸到Gariep Kaoko带[103-105](图 4)。
Brasiliano造山带发育590~500 Ma造山后A型花岗岩,570 Ma之后发育了大量的走滑剪切带,南部的构造研究显示南美和非洲之间的陆-陆碰撞具有穿时性,早期发育E—W、NWW—SEE、NW—SE的同碰撞构造,随后发育NE—SW、NNE—SSW走向的剪切带,伴随碰撞相关的花岗岩体分布[106]。
Brasiliano造山带演化过程有多种观点,根据大量的岩浆活动和变质作用显示演化过程总体可分为850~700 Ma、650~600 Ma、590~540 Ma三个阶段[106]。刚果—圣弗朗西斯科克拉通和拉普拉塔克拉通碰撞产生南Brasilia造山带;650~600 Ma亚马逊—西非克拉通与已经连接的刚果—圣弗朗西斯科—拉普拉塔板块碰撞产生北Brasiliano造山带、Borborema造山带和Araguaia造山带(图 4);~550 Ma拉普拉塔和亚马逊克拉通碰撞产生Paraguay造山带完成西冈瓦纳的拼合[103-105]。而Da Silva等[107]则认为南部的Riberia和Dom Felisiano为640~620 Ma的陆-陆碰撞造山带,Brasiliano南延的Saldania和Kaoko为550~540 Ma的碰撞造山带。
2.2 东非造山带东非造山带全长约6 000 km,包括非洲东部和马达加斯加岛,是世界上最重要的泛非造山带之一。根据造山带类型、年龄和几何形态,可将其分为南、北两部分(图 5):北部为北宽南窄的阿拉伯—努比亚地盾(也称ANS地体)于新元古代期间在毗邻莫桑比克洋或洋内发生显著的地壳增生;南部莫桑比克带(Mozambique Belt,MB)[108, 110],分布以东部麻粒岩省—Cabo Delgado推覆体杂岩(CDNC)为代表的新元古代地壳和被新元古代事件叠加的前新元古代地壳。
南部莫桑比克带基底多为太古宙—古元古代或中元古代长英质片麻岩,被走向SWW—NEE、倾向NNW的新元古代—早古生代Lurio剪切带切割[111-114]。马达加斯加是东非造山带的东缘,以左旋Ranotsara剪切带和Andraparaty俯冲带为南北块体的界线,中部为太古宙克拉通,北部为新元古代Bemarivo俯冲增生地壳,南部为复杂的前寒武纪高级片麻岩基底[108, 115](图 5)。
东非造山带受两期构造运动的影响,表现出两期变质变形的特点。阿拉伯—努比亚地盾地区包括阿拉伯—努比亚地盾和大量岛弧、弧后盆地以及新元古代新生地壳,发育750~650 Ma、800~700 Ma多条蛇绿混杂岩带,变形年龄为700~610 Ma,为洋壳俯冲和岛弧碰撞过程[108, 110, 116-117]。东非造山带南段发育655~600 Ma的高压—超高压岩石和高温麻粒岩相变质[118],并在马达加斯加的南部有647~607 Ma的地壳缩短变形,表明莫桑比克带经历了655~600 Ma的陆-陆碰撞造山过程[102, 119]。而莫桑比克带发育605~520 Ma麻粒岩—角闪岩相高温低压变质以及530~490 Ma区域性绿片岩相退变质[109]。由于Azania向东运动,造成马达加斯加岛中部地块近南北向的Angavo剪切带(ANSZ)于560~550 Ma活化,并将前新元古代的构造带改造,发生580~540 Ma的褶皱和麻粒岩相变质作用,局部发现强烈的南北向面理和水平线理,构造特征与印度南部的剪切带相似[120]。因此,莫桑比克带以及马达加斯加中部还经历了~550 Ma的构造运动。
2.3 印度东高止造山带和印度南部麻粒岩地体印度半岛由古元古代构造带将其分为北部陆核和南部4个太古宙克拉通,其东缘是东高止带(Eastern Ghats Belt,EGB),南端是南部麻粒岩地体(Southern Granulite Terrain,SGT[121])(图 5)。
东高止省是东高止带北部主要的组成单元,Rengali省位于东高止省的更北部,两者沿着断裂带广泛分布550~500 Ma的N/NW—S/SE收缩变质变形[122]。发育Sileru和Elchuru-Kunavaram-Koraput两条剪切带,岩石发生褶皱,含高镁铝麻粒岩俘虏体,发育530 Ma剪切面理和糜棱面理,U-Pb锆石和EPMA独居石数据显示剪切带在新元古代—早古生代发生过多幕构造变形[121, 123],伴随的变质作用有550~500 Ma的麻粒岩相变质和540~500 Ma的角闪岩相变质[124-127],其中角闪岩相变质与南极北缘的Rayner杂岩相似[128]。
印度南部麻粒岩地体位于重建的东冈瓦纳中心位置,为太古宙和元古宙的混杂基底,北邻Dharwar克拉通(图 5),自北往南可分为Salem地体、Palghat-Cauvery剪切带(PCSZ)、Madurai地体、Trivandrum地体(T-NB地体)、Nagercoil地体5个构造单元[109]。
Achankovil剪切带是Madurai地块的南界,岩石组合与Palghat-Cauvery剪切带相似,与Madurai地块北部一起经历了550~520 Ma榴辉岩和超高温麻粒岩相变质作用,紫苏花岗岩变质年龄为548~526 Ma,而Palghat-Cauvery剪切带发育年龄为750~560 Ma的弧岩浆岩,暗示Palghat-Cauvery剪切带大致在550 Ma由俯冲作用转变成碰撞造山作用[129-130]。Trivanderu地块和Negercoil地块独居石、锆石年龄显示,主要构造热事件发生在550 Ma,顺时针的pTt轨迹记录了Madurai地块(Azania板块)与Salem地块(代表新元古代印度块体)于540~510 Ma的碰撞事件[116]。
2.4 斯里兰卡(Sri Lanka)Cooray[131]将Sri Lanka分为4个构造单元:Highland杂岩(HIC), Wanni杂岩(WAC), Vijayan杂岩(VIC),Kadugannawa杂岩(KC),其中HIC和VIC之间以俯冲带接触(图 5)。Wanni杂岩与印度南部麻粒岩地体中的Achankovil剪切带在岩性组合和Nd同位素模式年龄(1.0~2.0 Ga)上具有相似性,Highland杂岩的变质区域也与印度南部在岩石特征上具有相似性,发育550 Ma高压麻粒岩相变质[98, 132]。
2.5 环东南极泛非造山带东南极克拉通与澳大利亚克拉通东南缘在中元古代通过Albany-Fraser造山带连接形成统一的块体[98, 133]。前人在东南极造山带中识别出了较为确定的两条泛非期缝合带,分别为东南极克拉通北缘Lutzow Holm Bay-普利兹湾(Prydz Bay)一带以及西缘Dronning Maud-Land(DML,毛德皇后地),并对其位置不断进行调整[134-140](图 5)。
东南极克拉通西缘毛德皇后地泛非期碰撞造山运动的响应主要分布在Heimefront剪切带(HSZ)以东区域,其西部地体几乎没受泛非运动的影响[141]。Jacobs等[134]等将毛德皇后地的泛非运动分为以下阶段:碰撞造山过程,褶皱冲断作用伴随着等温降压过程,中—新元古代岩石被570~550 Ma麻粒岩相变质作用和碰撞相关变形改造;530~490 Ma的造山垮塌和构造逃逸阶段;530~510 Ma造山后伸展垮塌阶段,大量的伸展构造和A型花岗岩侵入,伴随多种同构造岩浆作用。毛德皇后地东部Sor Rondance Mountains(图 5)详细的构造解析显示,该地区主要的伸展构造发生在泛非变质期600 Ma之前,在DML中—东部发育600~560 Ma左旋挤压走滑断层;而在560~550 Ma发育右旋张扭性断层[142]。其构造特征与东非造山带具有相似性,如与Angavo缝合带(ANSZ)北部的Wadi Kid地区NW—SE向的左旋横压最终转变为NW—SE向伸展作用,马达加斯加西部580~550 Ma的地壳增厚和530~500 Ma的左旋平移剪切[143]。毛德皇后地中部有泛非期同碰撞花岗岩就位以及角闪岩相-麻粒岩相变质,527~521 Ma花岗岩形成于伸展环境。
东南极北部的Lutzow Holm Bay—普利兹湾剪切带为Kuunga造山带的北东段[137],Kuunga造山作用的痕迹主要保存在Lutzow Holm Bay、普利兹湾、格罗夫山、南查尔斯王子山(图 5)。Ltitzow Holm Bay发育570~520 Ma区域性麻粒岩相变质和褶皱变形,同构造浅色花岗岩的年龄也显示发生520 Ma构造变形,且这些变形不是与伸展构造相关[142, 144]。普利兹湾记录了535~525 Ma与收缩变形有关的高温变质作用、混合岩、重熔型长英质片麻岩[102],530 Ma麻粒岩相顺时针pTt演化轨迹[137]。格罗夫山记录了~530 Ma的花岗岩侵入和高温变质作用[137]。南查尔斯王子山北部经历了早古生代变形,发育NE向糜棱岩带,有550 Ma长英质岩脉侵入[133]。
2.6 澳大利亚Pinjarra造山带Pinjarra造山带分布在澳大利亚西南缘(图 5),大部分被显生宙盆地覆盖,主要出露发育片麻岩以及中级变质碎屑岩、片岩。Fitzsimons[145]根据基底研究认为Pinjarra造山带将东冈瓦纳分为澳大利亚—南极(Australo-Antarctic)和印度—南极(Indo-Antarctic)两部分。Pinjarra造山带的性质决定了这两部分的拼合过程,现其性质的研究主要存在中元古代碰撞造山带后期活化和新元古代缝合带两类观点。
Pinjarra造山带以近南北向的Darling断裂与其东部的伊尔岗太古宙克拉通分隔(图 5)。Darling断裂发育剪切带、糜棱岩带和千糜岩[146],太古宙形成后经历了1 080 Ma和750~500 Ma两次活化[145, 147]。在Pinjarra造山带南端发育750 Ma右旋走滑,于550~500 Ma发生区域性的左旋走滑和角闪岩相糜棱岩[145-146]。古地磁证据表示沿着Pinjarra造山带的左旋走滑位移达到了大陆块尺度,因此这些晚新元古代—早古生代的地质现象是550 Ma印度和澳大利亚西缘发生斜向碰撞所引起[145, 148]。Pinjarra造山带主要的泛非事件记录在Leeuwin杂岩,产出~780 Ma和~520 Ma的A型非造山花岗岩[149],570~550 Ma发生麻粒岩相变质和强烈变形,高级变质作用峰期为550 Ma[102, 150-151]。与东南极东部的Denman Glacier和Bunger Hills地区都具有520~500 Ma造山后花岗岩记录,因此Pinjarra造山带向南可延伸到南极地区[145]。
3 早古生代碰撞造山特征及全球意义大板块之间近同时的碰撞造山是超大陆聚集的关键过程和主要形式。Columbia超大陆主要集中在21.0~18.0亿年之间,而Rodinia超大陆主要集中在13.0~10.0亿年之间,总体持续时限约为3.0亿年,峰期在11.0亿年。而早古生代碰撞造山主要发生在5.4~4.2亿年之间。总体从地球历史看,从点碰撞到全面碰撞造山的时限在缩短,这不仅与板块运动速度加速有关,而且与大陆块体或大板块在不断长大密切相关。碰撞造山也从古元古代的热造山,逐渐出现以冷造山占主导,岩石上表现在古元古代碰撞造山带中主要以高压麻粒岩为特征,而早古生代多数碰撞造山带以热榴辉岩为特点,到晚古生代之后以冷榴辉岩为特性。这都与地球总体的热衰减演化趋势是一致的。此外,碰撞造山与俯冲增生造山不同的是弯山构造很少发育。
早古生代全球碰撞型造山带主要分布在南半球的泛非造山带和北半球的加里东期造山带,分别与南方冈瓦纳大陆和北方劳俄古陆的初步集结密切相关,早古生代碰撞造山主要体现以大板块或大陆块之间的碰撞作用为特征。两者关闭方式都可能是内侧洋闭合机制(Intro-version)[104, 152]。实际上,从Pangea裂解到后期大洋的出现部位来看,前期大陆块之间碰撞造山的位置往往会重新裂解出现新的大洋盆地。如,加里东造山带裂解出现北大西洋,东、西冈瓦纳大陆拼合的莫桑比克造山带后期裂解出现印度洋。这一点和增生造山带不同,大板块周缘的增生造山带后期裂解往往形成弧后盆地,如汤加弧后盆地、日本岛弧西侧的弧后盆地;当然也有个别出现小洋盆或短暂的大洋盆地,如Rheic洋、勉略洋、古特提斯洋、新特提斯洋等。这种宏观现象可能不是局部构造因素控制,更可能是大尺度深部动力学机制控制。
碰撞造山最终往往形成巨型花状构造,对早期构造形迹改造较强烈,因而非常难以判断碰撞造山早期的板块俯冲极性,这是当前全球很多碰撞造山带俯冲极性存在巨大争论的原因,进而也是当前碰撞造山带研究急需解决的构造技术难题。我们的野外经验表明,揭示第一幕区域变形的极性是认清碰撞造山早期过程的关键,同时需要配合大地构造单元划分,岩石成分-地球化学极性研究,可望有效揭示这个精细演化历史。此外,中下地壳也可能保存其早期俯冲结构,因而关键部位的深反射地震剖面的研究也非常必要。只有碰撞早期的俯冲极性很好解决,全球尺度的板块重建才更为精细可靠。
碰撞造山往往具有全球效应,伴随一系列深、浅部过程的调整,深部构造过程如底侵、拆沉、深熔、渠道流,浅部地表系统如楔入、挤出、变形分解、走滑等地质过程。碰撞造山带的复杂性还体现在碰撞方式可以正向、斜向,俯冲角度,分期分段碰撞等,这些都会导致碰撞造山带之间具体的个性差异演化。此外,在碰撞前、同碰撞和碰撞后物质循环、再造,成岩、成矿、成盆、成藏、成灾、浅表地球系统河流水系变化和源汇效应、海水化学成分变化、环境变化与生物辐射或绝灭等等,都会有一系列综合连锁效应。这一切都可能取决于深部动力机制,就是碰撞的内动力机制,或驱动大陆块之间碰撞的动力来源。早古生代全球性碰撞事件的这些效应研究非常薄弱,这是当前需要多学科交叉深入探索的前沿。
4 结论本文通过对全球早古生代造山带的系统集成分析,得出以下几点新认识:
1)早古生代碰撞造山带皆具有蓝片岩、榴辉岩、高压麻粒岩等典型的俯冲-碰撞相关的岩石特征,具有顺时针pTt轨迹;而且这些高压—超高压岩石具有全球准同时性,集中在550~450 Ma期间,可能表明在早古生代期间的1亿年内发生了全球性板块聚合运动。
2)南半球Brasiliano造山运动、东非造山运动和Kuunga造山运动导致冈瓦纳大陆分阶段最终于~540 Ma完成拼贴。而经典加里东造山带、中欧缝合带导致北半球劳俄大陆最终于~420 Ma完成拼合,此时斯瓦尔巴特和英国可能位于格陵兰地盾东南缘。早古生代碰撞造山导致全球南、北大陆的形成。
3)当前碰撞造山带研究中最为薄弱、争论最大的是俯冲极性以及早古生代碰撞造山带的全球深部机制和地表系统响应等,需要多学科加强交叉和综合研究。
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