2. 天津大学水利仿真与安全国家重点实验室,天津市雅观路135号,300072
20世纪70年代以来,由于高分辨率钻孔应变观测技术能有效弥补GPS观测和地震观测在分辨率和观测带宽上的空白[1],并具有较好的抗地表干扰能力,被广泛应用于板块边界观测计划[2-4]、中国地震观测台网[5-6]等地球物理场观测领域,钻孔应变观测结果已在火山动力学[7-8]、地震孕育及发生过程(瞬间滑移、断层蠕变、地震成核、慢地震、静寂地震等)[9-15]、地震震源评价[16-17]和地震预测[18-20]等科学研究中发挥了重要作用。
目前,高分辨率钻孔应变仪主要分为体积式钻孔应变仪和分量式钻孔应变仪。体积式钻孔应变仪主要测量水平面内的面应变,主要有Sacks-Evertson型[21]、TJ型[22]和Sakata型[23];分量式钻孔应变仪主要测量水平面内的应变分量,主要有RZB型[20, 24]、YRY型[25-26]、GTSM型[27-28]和SKZ型[18]。分量式钻孔应变仪内部都有4个测量探头内径变化的测量元件,具有不同的排列方式,其中RZB型、YRY型和SKZ型分量式应变仪的4个测量元件依次间隔45°排列,而GTSM型分量式应变仪的前3个元件依次间隔60°排列,第4个元件与第2个元件的夹角为90°。这些钻孔应变仪的应变分辨率均优于10-9,可清晰观测到应变固体潮[29-32]。
为了能够定量测量地壳内部某点的应变变化εa,通常情况下将钻孔应变仪的观测探头安装在钻孔一定深度处,并用膨胀水泥将其与基岩耦合在一起。当钻孔周边的应变场发生变化时,钻孔、膨胀水泥、探头钢筒的形状随之发生变化,通过探头的测量单元可直接测量出探头钢筒内径(或体积)的相对变化e。对于分量式应变仪,引入测量元件方位矩阵G,可得到分量式应变仪的仪器应变εI={ε11I+ε22I, ε11I-ε22I, 2ε12I}T,即
$ \mathit{\boldsymbol{e}}=\mathit{\boldsymbol{G}}{\mathit{\boldsymbol{\varepsilon }}^I} $ | (1) |
式中,
钻孔应变观测的结果应为无钻孔情况下在钻孔轴处的应变变化εa,所以需要解决如何通过εI给出εa的问题。本文引入无钻孔情况下测量点周边一定范围内为均匀应变场εR的假设(意味着εa=εR),利用基于远场均匀应变εR作用的小孔应力集中模型给出的线性耦合关系εR=K-1εI得到εa,其中K为耦合系数矩阵,与钻孔、膨胀水泥、探头钢筒的物性和几何性质有关。虽然原则上K可以通过计算得到,但由于测量探头安装完毕后无法得到膨胀水泥、钻孔、钢筒壁之间的耦合状态及相关介质的物性,K的计算结果具有很大的不确定性,必须通过原位标定给出。钻孔应变观测的原位标定是关系到钻孔应变观测理论与技术发展的至关重要的基础性问题,其在广义上包括两个方面:1)钻孔应变仪电学原位标定,由钻孔应变仪的电学输出与εI之间的标定系数确定;2)耦合系数矩阵K的原位标定。将经过室内标定后的钻孔应变仪安装至钻孔内后需定期进行电学标定,可采取在测量元件中设置电学标定装置,如电致伸缩标定系统[25, 33]、磁致伸缩标定系统[33]及加热升温标定系统[34]等,或利用测量元件的特殊布置方式所具有的特性[35]来实现。本文所指的原位标定特指耦合系数矩阵K的原位标定。
为更好地促进钻孔应变观测原位标定技术的发展,推进钻孔应变观测在地震学、地球动力学、火山动力学、地震预报等学科领域中的应用,本文从标定模型、参考应变信号等方面系统总结钻孔应变观测原位标定方法的最新研究进展,总结钻孔应变观测原位标定中常用的标定模型,介绍基于固体潮参考应变信号和地震波参考应变信号的原位标定方法的研究进展,提出钻孔应变观测原位标定中存在的主要问题,并展望今后的发展方向。
1 标定模型对于钻孔应变观测原位标定来说,标定模型的选取至关重要,根据参考信号的类型可分为静态标定模型和动态标定模型。对于静态标定模型来说,最常用的模型是各向同性标定模型KH[27],该模型引入平面应力假设,利用基于远场均匀应变εR作用下各向同性介质含双环夹杂小孔应力的集中模型给出[27, 36-38]:
$ {\mathit{\boldsymbol{K}}^H} = {\rm{diag}}({C, D, D}) $ | (2) |
式中,C和D分别为水平面应变和水平剪切应变的耦合系数,由膨胀水泥、钻孔、钢筒壁之间的耦合状态及相关介质的物性决定。由耦合系数矩阵为对角阵可得出,远场应变的面应变分量和剪切应变分量分别只与仪器应变的面应变分量和剪切应变分量有关。假设钻孔周边m级范围的应变场和仪器应变保持各向同性耦合关系εL=KH-1εI,Hart等[39]考虑km尺度区域应变场εR受小尺度非均质体的影响,引入干扰矩阵P (非对角阵),将仪器应变εI与区域应变场εR联系起来,提出交叉耦合标定模型:
$ {\mathit{\boldsymbol{K }}} = \mathit{\boldsymbol{K}}^H{\mathit{\boldsymbol{P }}} $ | (3) |
其中,K为非对角阵,意味着仪器面应变和仪器剪切应变受到εR所有分量的影响。K的非对角元素不为零,可能是由测量元件的方位误差和比例系数不同、沿孔轴的耦合系数变化和围岩的各向异性造成的。Roeloffs[40]进一步考虑垂直变形和剪切变形耦合的影响,研究了交叉耦合矩阵每个元素的取值范围。结合参考应变信号,基于交叉耦合标定模型的原位标定结果明显好于基于各向同性模型的标定结果[2, 39-42]。
对于动态标定模型来说,选取的参考信号通常为入射地震应变波。由于钻孔壁的存在,入射应变波会在钻孔周边产生不同类型的散射应变波,仪器的应变是入射应变波和散射应变波之和。钻孔应变观测动态系统的频响为理论频响(仪器应变与入射应变波的比值)与仪器应变频响的乘积,通过实际测试发现,仪器应变为低通滤波器,其带宽可达20 Hz以上[5, 26-28];理论频响取决于入射应变波的种类、入射方向、入射波频率及钻孔系统的物性和结构[43-44],需采用弹性波散射理论来求解[45]。有学者采用波函数展开法研究了P波和S波垂直钻孔轴入射的情况下分量式钻孔应变观测的理论频响[46-48],结果表明,钻孔系统也为低通滤波器,其0.1 dB带宽可达100 Hz左右。由此可知,钻孔应变观测动态系统本质上为低通滤波器,其带宽取决于理论频响与仪器应变频响的带宽最小值,静态标定模型可视为动态标定模型的极低频情况。
2 原位标定方法除了标定模型的选取,钻孔应变观测原位标定的另一个重要问题就是参考应变信号εR的选取,目前选取的参考应变信号分别为固体潮参考应变信号和地震应变波参考信号。
2.1 基于固体潮参考应变信号的原位标定基于固体潮参考应变信号的原位标定主要选取固体潮信号中的半日潮M2(12.42 h)和全日潮O1(25.82 h),因为这两种固体潮分量的幅值较大,且温度对其影响较小[40]。通过分别比较应变仪测量元件实测值和参考应变信号给出的M2、O1分量的实部和虚部,对耦合系数矩阵K进行标定[2-3, 36, 39-42, 49]:
$ {\left[ {\begin{array}{*{20}{c}} {{{\left( {{\rm Re} ({\mathit{\boldsymbol{e}}_{{{\rm{M}}_2}}})} \right)}^{\rm{T}}}} \\ {{{\left( {{\rm Im} ({\mathit{\boldsymbol{e}}_{{{\rm{M}}_2}}})} \right)}^{\rm{T}}}} \\ {{{\left( {{\rm Re} ({\mathit{\boldsymbol{e}}_{{{\rm{O}}_1}}})} \right)}^{\rm{T}}}} \\ {{{\left( {{\rm Im} ({\mathit{\boldsymbol{e}}_{{{\rm{O}}_1}}})} \right)}^{\rm{T}}}} \end{array}} \right]^{\rm{T}}} = \mathit{\boldsymbol{GK}}{\left[ {\begin{array}{*{20}{c}} {{{\left( {{\rm Re} (\mathit{\boldsymbol{\varepsilon }}_{{{\rm{M}}_2}}^R)} \right)}^{\rm{T}}}} \\ {{{\left( {{\rm Im} (\mathit{\boldsymbol{\varepsilon }}_{{{\rm{M}}_2}}^R)} \right)}^{\rm{T}}}} \\ {{{\left( {{\rm Re} (\mathit{\boldsymbol{\varepsilon }}_{{{\rm{O}}_1}}^R)} \right)}^{\rm{T}}}} \\ {{{\left( {{\rm Im} (\mathit{\boldsymbol{\varepsilon }}_{{{\rm{O}}_1}}^R)} \right)}^{\rm{T}}}} \end{array}} \right]^{\rm{T}}} $ | (4) |
式中,e为应变仪测量元件测得的钢筒内径的相对变化,εR为参考信号的应变。对于四分量钻孔应变仪,式(4)中的矩阵GK是超定的,可通过求解Moore-Penrose广义逆来求得[2, 39]。固体潮的参考应变信号可通过两种方式获得:1)通过与钻孔应变仪同址安装在地表的3个不同测量方位的长基线激光干涉仪测量得到km尺度的固体潮参考应变信号[39, 42]。该方法确定的参考应变信号精度最高,可达到3.5 nε。但由于长基线激光干涉仪的成本较高,仅在很少的钻孔应变观测站点安装,限制了该方法的大规模应用。2)通过理论固体潮模型计算得到的应变作为参考应变信号[50]。该方法简单实用且成本极低,目前已成为一种常用的钻孔应变观测原位标定方法。但由于受地球深部结构模型、海洋荷载模型、钻孔周边地形和介质不均质性的影响,理论固体潮计算模型并不准确,从而影响以该模型计算结果为参考的钻孔应变标定结果的准确性,对理论固体潮计算模型进行适当修正可显著提高标定精度[42]。利用有限元模型定量分析影响钻孔应变测量结果的因素,如地形、仪器周围地质情况等,可将理论固体潮计算所得的应变误差从23%降至8%[51]。与同址安装的长基线激光干涉仪固体潮测量结果进行对比发现,基于理论固体潮参考应变信号的原位标定方法若采用交叉耦合标定模型,相对于各向同性标定模型可减少30%的系统误差[39]。考虑理论固体潮计算模型高达30%的误差并对地震点源模型进行微调,钻孔应变仪测量得到的2014年加州南纳帕6.0级地震所造成的应变阶和理论计算应变阶的均方根拟合误差从130 nε降至18 nε[41]。由此可见,理论固体潮模型的准确性极大程度地影响着原位标定结果的精确度。
2.2 基于地震应变波参考信号的原位标定基于地震应变波参考信号的原位标定主要采用远震长周期面波的计算应变波形或从地震台阵测量的地震应变波作为参考信号。Bonaccorso等[52]采用远震(震级在8级以上)的长周期面波的计算应变波形对埃特纳火山的体应变观测结果进行了原位标定,结果具有很好的自洽性,而PBO计划中的实际应变数据受安装问题和地质不均匀性的影响并不协调,从而提出可使用宽频带台网计算的应变数据标定钻孔应变仪。利用Langston等[53]提出的基于宽频带地震台阵数据的地震波梯度测量方法,Currenti等[54]根据埃塔纳火山附近3个地震仪组成的台阵数据计算出均匀体应变,并与位于台阵内部的钻孔体应变仪记录的同一次远震的体应变数据进行对比,结果显示,二者具有很好的相关性,这意味着该方法可用于钻孔应变仪的标定。
从地震台阵测量的地震应变波要求地震台阵至少包含3台地震仪,且假设台阵范围内(100 m尺度到10 km尺度)的地震应变波场是均匀波场。引入小变形假设,任意点X的位移U(X)可表示为相对于参考点X0的泰勒展开:
$ U\left( X \right) = U\left( {{X_0}} \right) + {\left. {\frac{{\partial U}}{{\partial X}}} \right|_{{X_0}}}\left( {X - {X_0}} \right) $ | (5) |
考虑地表应力自由的条件,参考地震应变波
$ \left. \begin{array}{l} \mathit{\boldsymbol{GM }}= d \\ \mathit{\boldsymbol{BM = }}0 \\ \end{array} \right\} $ | (6) |
式中,
虽然在低频情况下地震台阵测量的地震应变波与长基线激光干涉仪得到的应变波符合较好,且基于地震波参考信号的原位标定避免了因使用理论固体潮计算模型不准确而造成的系统误差,但由于计算应变波基于在地震台阵范围内的应变场是均一的这一假设,而地震台站之间的距离在10 km级,计算应变值受计算模型的影响也有类似于基于理论固体潮的原位标定存在系统误差的问题[54]。具体体现在:1)由于台阵范围内地下结构的非均质性,均匀应变场的假设很难得到保证,造成标定结果受地震波的传播方向影响较大;2)直接采用静态标定模型,未考虑动态标定模型的影响[55-59]。Gomberg等[57]研究发现,将通过地震数据和弹性理论导出的应变数值与用长基线三分量应变仪测量所得应变数值进行对比,振幅存在大约20%甚至更大的偏差,同时更高的频率会引起更大的偏差。
3 结语综上所述,受标定模型和参考信号准确性的影响,基于固体潮参考应变信号的原位标定方法和基于地震应变波参考信号的原位标定方法的精度还无法得到可靠的保证。基于计算参考均匀应变信号(理论固体潮或计算应变波)的原位标定受理论计算模型不准确性的影响,标定结果存在系统性偏差;基于测量的参考均匀应变信号(地震台阵测量的地震应变波或长基线应变仪测量的固体潮)的原位标定,由于参考均匀应变信号是通过测量给出的,相对于基于计算参考均匀应变信号的原位标定来说,其标定结果更加可靠。然而,由于受测量尺度范围内的介质非均质性影响,测量参考应变场通常是非均匀的,造成基于测量参考均匀应变信号的原位标定结果的精度不够高。
目前,钻孔应变观测高精度原位标定已成为制约钻孔观测理论与技术发展的关键问题。为提高钻孔应变观测原位标定的精度,必须保证参考应变信号的准确性,减少介质非均质性的影响,选取尽量小的尺度范围内的参考应变信号εR[17]。利用同孔安装的地震仪信号对钻孔应变仪进行标定,可能是将来钻孔应变观测高精度原位标定研究的重点[60],但该研究方向还面临许多问题需要解决,如入射应变波的种类、方向、频率及钻孔系统的物性和结构对动态标定模型及钻孔周边波速的频散效应的影响等。
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2. State Key Laboratory of Hydraulic Engineering Simulation and Safety, Tianjin University, 135 Yaguan Road, Tianjin 300072, China