2. 武汉大学南极测绘研究中心, 湖北 武汉 430079
2. Chinese Antarctic Center of Surveying and Mapping, Wuhan University, Wuhan 430079, China
对流层是地球近地空间环境的重要组成部分之一,是与人类生活联系最密切的大气圈层。作为对流层中一种非常重要的温室气体,水汽在其变化过程中会吸收和释放大量潜热,直接影响地面和空气温度,进而影响大气垂直稳定度和对流天气系统的形成与演变,在全球大气辐射、能量平衡、水循环中都扮演了极其重要的角色。水汽是降水、蒸发和湿度平衡的结果,它是底层大气圈相关天气过程中的一个重要指标,是天气、气候变化发生和发展的主要驱动力,是灾害性天气形成和演变的重要因子。大气中的水汽受季节、地形及其他全球气候条件等因素的影响,具有空间分布不均匀、随时空变化较快等特性。因此,研究掌握全球水汽变化的时空特性有助于了解全球水汽循环路径,可为监测和预报暴雨、寒流、台风等多种恶劣天气和重大旱涝灾害灾前信息获取与灾害预警提供数据支持,对于研究全球气候变化和改善气象预报水平具有重要的科学和现实意义。
作为地球近地空间环境的另外一个重要组成部分,电离层的变化,特别是空间暴的发生,对航天安全、无线电通信、定位与导航等有破坏性影响,近年的研究发现,一些自然灾害(如地震、台风、海啸、火山喷发等)的孕育和发生过程及一些人为活动(如火箭发射等)都有可能引起电离层异常,很可能成为预报重大自然灾害和监测人类活动的一种潜在手段。利用现代科技手段进行日地空间特别是地球空间的探测,掌握电离层的基本结构和变化规律,不仅有利于提高测速、定位、授时、通信和导航等系统的精度,而且对于研究高空大气各层之间的相互关系和作用,特别是对全球性的电离层扰动及不规则变化的发生机理的研究等具有重要的科学意义。这项工作已引起不少国家的学者甚至是政府部门的重视,在电离层监测及其应用研究方面已取得不少成果。
传统水汽和电离层探测手段时空分辨率低,受天气影响,GNSS的出现提供了新的技术手段。利用GNSS信号经过电离层、对流层时受到的延迟影响,可以高时空分辨率地反演出电离层电子密度和对流层水汽信息,监测这两方面的空间环境的变化,由此衍生出GNSS空间环境学这一新的学科方向。
下面分别对GNSS空间环境学中的关键技术进行介绍,主要包括对流层关键参量建模、GNSS对流层水汽反演、GNSS电离层监测和建模方面的研究。
1 对流层关键参量建模对流层在全球大气辐射、能量平衡、水循环中都扮演了极其重要的角色,气温、气压、水汽压、天顶湿延迟(zenith wet delay,ZWD)、天顶静力学延迟(zenith hydrostatic delay,ZHD)与水汽等都是对流层中重要的参量,也是研究全球气候变化、极端天气产生机理等的参考指标。当前主要有3类关键参量建模方法:对流层关键参量经验模型、基于实测气象参数的对流层延迟模型和基于GNSS观测数据的对流层延迟模型。这3类模型建模成本(时间、人力、物力)依次增加,但相对应的对流层模型精度也逐渐提高。
1.1 基于经验模型的对流层关键参量建模进展对流层关键参量经验模型旨在解决无任何辅助信息下通过模型直接获取高精度的对流延迟,文献[1—2]最初为美国广域增强导航系统的应用建立了UNB系列模型,用来估计所需的气象参数,UNB3模型在北美地区估计的对流层天顶延迟的平均误差约为2 cm。EGNOS模型[3]对UNB3模型进行了简化,但是气象参数的估计公式不同,已被用于欧洲和日本等地区的卫星导航增强系统[4-5]。文献[6]利用美国国家环境预报中心(National Centers for Environmental Prediction,NCEP)的数字天气模型(numerical weather model,NWM)产品建立了水平分辨率为1°×1°的TropGrid模型,其与EGNOS相比全球平均精度提高了25%。文献[7]利用由欧洲中期天气预报中心(European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts,ECMWF)提供的NWM产品ERA-40建立了全球气压和温度经验模型(global pressure and temperature,GPT),GPT模型在实际中得到了广泛的应用[8-14]。文献[15—16]利用NCEP资料建立了全球对流层延迟经验模型IGGtrop系列模型。文献[17]针对GPT模型的部分不足之处进行了改进和优化,构建了新的经验模型GPT2。文献[18]对TropGrid模型进行优化升级,建立了新的经验模型TropGrid2,模型能提供气温、气压、大气加权平均温度及天顶对流层湿延迟等对流层关键参数估值。文献[19]建立的GPT2w模型,相比GPT2模型增加了水汽递减率和大气加权平均温度这2项估计参数。GPT2系列模型一经发布,便有不少学者都对其精度及应用效果进行了评估,结果表明其具有很高的精度[20-22]。文献[20]考虑到GPT2和TropGrid2模型所提供参数种类的优缺点,提出了对流层误差改正模型ITG(improved tropospheric grid model),该模型的建模对象包括地表气温、气压、ZWD及气温直减率。
1.2 基于实测气象参数的对流层关键参量建模进基于实测气象参数的对流层延迟模型利用气象参数来计算ZTD,通常将ZHD与ZWD分开进行计算。文献[23]提出了基于气象参数的对流层延迟模型,通过利用测站高度及气温、气压、水汽压来计算ZTD,Hopfield模型的ZHD和ZWD可以分开计算。文献[24]也提出了基于气象参数的对流层延迟模型,通过利用测站纬度、高度,以及气温、气压、水汽压即可计算出ZTD,Saastamoinen模型中ZHD与ZWD也可分开进行计算。文献[25]则提出了利用气象参数计算ZWD的模型,模型输入的参数包括测站处的气温、气压及水汽压。文献[26]也提出了一种计算ZWD的模型,模型所需的气象参数包括大气加权平均温度、水汽压及水汽压递减率。但是不少学者的研究结果[27]都表明:Hopfield、Saastamoinen等模型通过气象参数计算的ZTD与经验模型相比精度上没有优势,甚至还更差。这在一定程度上不仅使得对基于气象参数的对流层延迟模型研究热度降低,也使得该类模型的应用偏少。
1.3 基于GNSS观测数据的对流层关键参量建模进展基于GNSS的对流层延迟模型即利用GNSS观测数据进行ZTD解算,然后再建模。目前在利用GNSS观测数据估计ZTD时,都需要通过对流层映射函数将斜路径的延迟转换为天顶方向的延迟。对流层映射函数从发展至今已经日趋成熟稳定,映射函数通常采用连分式[28]。文献[29]通过拟合10个北美探空气球站的观测数据,首次建立了基于实测大气的映射函数,并且把连分式系数从与气象参数相关改成与温度和地理位置相关。文献[30]利用26个北半球无线电探空测站一年的数据建立了NMF映射函数,在NMF中连分式系数只与测站纬度、高度和年积日相关。由于NMF误差大小依赖于纬度的变化及对经度不敏感,许多学者开始利用NWM建立投影函数,如IMF[31]、VMF1[32]。其中VMF1被认为是目前最高精度的全球范围对流层映射函数模型,已经被GAMIT、Bernese等高精度GNSS数据处理软件所采用[33]。考虑到非在线用户无法获取VMF1产品的情况,文献[34]建立了经验映射函数模型GMF,仅需测站坐标及年积日即可提供全球范围的映射函数系数,该模型使用简单方便且与VMF1具有很好的一致性。
限于双差精密定位技术在实时估计天顶对流层延迟时需要引入500 km以外GNSS参考站的问题[35],精密单点定位技术(precise point positioning, PPP)较双差技术相比具有更大的优势。文献[36]研究了利用JPL实时轨道、时钟产品和PPP技术估计天顶对流层湿延迟,结果表明其精度可达13 mm。文献[37]研究了利用PPP技术估计对流层延迟的精度,其结果表明利用PPP技术估计对流层延迟可以获得很高的精度。文献[38]利用了CNES的实时改正数和近实时PPP估计了对流层延迟,与事后处理的结果相比大概存在6.5 mm的偏差,RMS为13 mm。
在区域对流层建模方面,目前已经存在着诸多线性内插模型,如反距离内插模型、线性内插模型、最小二乘配置模型、线性组合模型等,但是文献[39]认为这些模型基本类似并没有明显的区别。文献[40]提出了含高程因子的对流层内插模型。文献[41]按照经验研究分析了几种不同形式的对流层内插模型。
2 GNSS对流层水汽反演GNSS对流层水汽反演技术具有连续运行、全天候、高精度、高时空分辨率等优点,且测站布设成本低,投入使用快,可实现大范围高密度的实时水汽监测,该技术的出现是传统水汽探测技术的强有力补充,它不仅可以得到对流层中大气可降水量(precipitable water vapor, PWV)的二维空间分布,也可以通过层析成像技术(tomography technique)重构大气水汽在垂直方向上的三维廓线信息,已逐渐成为获取对流层中大气水汽最具有潜力的手段之一。根据GNSS水汽反演产品不同,可分为二维水汽产品和三维水汽时空分布信息。下面分别对二维水汽和三维水汽反演进展进行介绍。
2.1 二维对流层水汽(PWV)反演研究进展在二维PWV反演方面,文献[42]首次利用GPS观测数据估计得到测站天顶方向的PWV,这促进了一门全新的学科,即GNSS气象学(GNSS Meteorology)的发展。国内外众多学者对获取PWV的可行性和精度进行了大量研究。通过与探空数据(radiosonde)、水汽辐射计(water vapor radiometer, WVR)和甚长基线干涉(very long baseline interferometry, VLBI)对比发现,基于地基GNSS反演的PWV精度在1~1.5 mm[35, 43-50]。
在斜路径水汽含量(slant water vapor, SWV)精度评定方面,众多学者对SWV的计算方法进行改进,提出了顾及双差残差、星间单差等反演水汽的方法[48-49],并将结果与微波辐射计对比发现,GPS反演SWV的精度在4 mm[51]。近年来,随着我国北斗卫星导航系统的迅猛发展,相关学者也对北斗卫星系统获取PWV的精度进行检验。文献[52]基于上海市气象局的北斗气象站数据反演PWV,并与GPS和探空数据计算结果进行对比,发现其均方根误差分别小于3.5和3.6 mm。文献[53]对北斗卫星探测PWV的性能进行分析,并与探空数据计算结果进行对比,发现北斗反演PWV与探空数据计算结果有很好的一致性,但与GPS反演的PWV有2~3.3 mm的系统误差。
2.2 三维水汽反演研究进展在对流层层析领域,文献[54]首次提出了利用区域观测网重构对流层水汽结构的概念。文献[55]首先实现了利用层析技术得到区域GPS网的四维湿折射率图像,证明了利用层析技术监测对流层时空变化的可行性。随后,众多学者对三维水汽层析方法进行大量验证和改进[56-59],提出了有限先验信息非约束、改进卡尔曼滤波、蒙特卡罗等水汽反演方法。
在多系统数据和多源数据联合反演水汽方面,试验证明了利用多系统观测数据可以在一定程度上提高水汽反演结果的精度和可靠性[60-61]。此外,也有相关研究联合地基和空基GNSS观测数据联合反演水汽的方法[62]。近年来,一些学者也相继提出了利用合成孔径雷达(interferometric synthetic aperture radar, InSAR)和GNSS观测值联合反演三维水汽信息的思路[63-65]。重构的三维水汽信息可用于气象方面的研究,例如对冷锋路径的探测[66]、改善不同尺度数值预报结果[67-71]及灾害性天气的研究[47]。
在层析模型求解和算法改进方面,文献[66]提出了阻尼最小二乘方法对观测方程进行求解。文献[72—73]采用扩展的序贯逐次滤波方法,克服了解算结果敏感性的问题。文献[74]给出了一种新的节点参数化水汽反演方法。文献[75—76]提出了基于卡尔曼滤波的三维水汽层析算法。文献[77]提出了基于代数重构算法层析三维水汽的方法。文献[78]为了克服水平约束方程权值选取不合理对层析结果造成的影响,提出了选权拟合法进行层析解算的方法。文献[79—82]在层析方程解算方面分别提出了自适应卡尔曼滤波方法、联合迭代重构算法、三维分布数值积分方法和抗差-方差分量估计的水汽反演算法。文献[83]对代数重构算法在水汽反演中的应用进行讨论,并通过实验证明该算法能够满足三维水汽反演的要求。
在对层析网格划分,约束信息选取方面,文献[84]对三维水汽层析中网格大小、水平和垂直分辨率选取、观测噪声及不同卫星系统对层析结果的影响进行了详细分析。文献[85]对国内外层析水汽网格划分方法进行描述。文献[86]对不同层析垂直分辨率及层析区域选择方法进行研究,提出了一种优化的区域网格划分方法。文献[87—89]针对侧面穿出射线利用问题提出了引入水汽单位指数和比例因子等一系列反演技术。
3 电离层监测和建模方面 3.1 二维电离层建模研究进展随着全球导航卫星系统(GNSS)技术的快速发展,地基GNSS的全球电离层TEC(total electron content)监测与建模已成为当前的研究热点之一[90-96]。目前,IGS(International GNSS Service)电离层工作组下设7个电离层分析中心,分别是欧洲定轨中心(CODE)、美国喷气推进实验室(JPL)、欧空局(ESA)、西班牙加泰罗尼亚理工大学(UPC),马萨诸塞大学(UML)、中国科学院(CAS)和武汉大学(WUH)。不同机构在二维模型的处理方法上有所差异,JPL在电离层单层模型(single layer model, SLM)假设的基础上,以三角格网内插和双三次样条函数内插的方法建立电离层模型[97]。UPC则是在基于双层电离层假设,以逐基准站准层析的方式建立电离层模型,对于无观测值区域采用克里金插值的方法进行合理外推[98]。CODE、ESA和WHU均采用15阶次的球谐函数(spherical harmonic, SH)在全球范围内建模[99-100],得到时空分辨率为2 h×2.5°(纬度)×5°(经度)的全球电离层VTEC格网。CAS电离层产品首先采用广义三角级数函数逐基准站地建立局部电离层模型,然后采用球谐函数建立全球电离层TEC模型用于保证无观测区域内电离层TEC的合理外推[94-95]。
现阶段,地基GNSS仍是电离层探测最重要的技术手段之一,但GNSS基准站大多分布在陆地,南半球海洋和高纬区域几乎没有基准站分布,使得模型在这些区域精度有限。空基电离层探测技术具有精度高、全球均匀覆盖等优点,因此联合地基与空基等多源数据进行电离层建模的研究具有重要意义。文献[101]结合GNSS数据和卫星测高数据进行全球电离层建模,结果表明卫星测高数据可以有效提高模型的精度。文献[93]首次联合地基GNSS、LEO掩星及卫星测高数据进行建模,结果表明模型的RMS降低了0.1TECU。2011年,文献[102]利用地基GNSS、LEO掩星观测值、海洋测高卫星数据和甚长基线干涉VLBI电离层观测值建立区域电离层模型。文献[96, 103]利用地基GNSS观测值、海洋测高卫星、COSMIC及DORIS观测值建立全球电离层模型,并利用赫尔默特方差分量估计对不同观测值精确定权, 模型在海洋地区的精度和可靠性进一步提高。
3.2 三维电离层层析研究进展电离层二维模型具有估计模型简单、精度高等优点,但是通常假定所有电子集中在一个薄层上,不能反映电离层的空间结构变化。为此,文献[104]在国际上首先提出了电离层层析成像(computerized ionosphere tomography, CIT)的概念,其实现手段主要借助于快速飞行的极轨卫星在短时间内对待探区域的一次断层扫描反演信号传播路径的TEC经度-高度方向分布信息。此后,国内外许多电离层研究者先后在理论和方法上对三维电离层层析技术进行了深入研究,建立了多种电离层层析模型。目前,这些模型大致可分为两类:一类是函数基电离层层析模型[105-109];另一类是像素基电离层层析模型[110-123]。
在函数基方面,文献[124]早在1992年就提出用经验正交函数展开表示电离层垂直模式,用球谐函数表示电离层水平模式。文献[125]最早明确给出函数基电离层模型的公式,并利用WAAS (wide area augmentation system)系统的观测数据和随机反演方法,反演了80~580 km高度范围内电子密度的空间分布。文献[126]将函数基层析模型的反演高度范围扩展到整个电离层高度,并利用GPS观测数据和Kalman滤波重构了电离层结构的时空分布。文献[108]基于GPS观测数据,利用B样条基函数和正交函数建立了函数基层析模型,并重构了电离层电子密度的时空分布。文献[127—128]研究了一种基于B样条基函数的三维电离层建模方法。文献[129]提出了一种基于Chapman函数的射线追踪层析算法。文献[130]提出了一种附加投影函数的函数基电离层层析算法。
在像素基方面,常用的反演算法有ART(algorithm reconstruction technique)、MART(multiplicative algorithm reconstruction technique)和SIRT(simul-taneous iteration reconstruction technique)[131-132]。为了克服观测信息不足给层析结果带来的不利影响,国内外很多电离层研究者提出了改进的方法。文献[133]联合28个站的GPS/MET掩星数据和IGS提供的全球160个站的观测数据,利用Kalman滤波方法实现了真正意义上的三维层析。文献[134]提出了一种参数化电离层模型辅助的Kalman滤波法。文献[135—136]提出三维变分数据同化算法,并在2004年利用该方法,开发了一套电离层电子密度分析程序,该程序可以同化GNSS卫星和测高仪等多手段观测数据。文献[137]提出了广义奇异值分解算法。文献[138]提出了Sobolev正则化约束的SIRT算法。文献[139]提出了融合GPS观测数据和测高仪数据的层析方法。文献[121]提出了一种两步法电离层层析算法。文献[123]发展了一种自适应的联合迭代重构算法,通过自适应地调整松弛因子和加权参数,能够有效地反演电离层电子密度。文献[140]提出过一种附加双网格约束和速度图像的电离层层析算法。文献[141]提出了顾及电离层变化的层析反演新算法,提高了电子密度反演精度。
3.3 电离层监测和应用进展GNSS二维/多维建模具有常规电离层探测手段(如电离层测高仪)无法比拟的优势。其探测时间和空间分辨率高,精度可靠,所以在电离层监测和预报领域具有广阔的应用前景。电离层的不规则扰动对航天安全、无线电通信、导航定位等有重要的影响,因此监测异常空间天气下的电离层扰动具有重要意义。早在1996年,文献[142]就利用60台GPS观测站求取的GIM图像,对磁暴期间电离层异常现象进行了研究,文献[143]利用层析技术监测了磁暴期间不同高度方向电离层响应机制,GNSS电离层反演手段的出现和发展促进了磁层-热层-电离层耦合机制的研究[144-147]。地震电离层异常,包括震前电离层异常(pre-earthquake ionospheric abnormal,PEIA)和同震电离层异常(coseismic ionospheric disturbances,CID)是近十几年来研究的一个热点之一。地震的电离层前兆第一次引起人们的注意是1965年,文献[148—149]首次对1964年Alaskan M9.0地震震区上空电离层扰动进行了研究。早期地震电离层异常的研究主要集中在统计性研究[150-154],随着电离层信息更加多元化和研究的不断深入,地震电离层异常的研究向更加精细的方向发展。文献[155]在研究Chi-Chi地震时利用格网搜索的方法不仅估计出CID传播速度而且确定了CID触发点的地面位置。文献[156]引入了电离层地震学的概念,并从理论上总结了目前地震电离层异常扰动物理机理的研究成果,同时指出该学科将是未来几十年具有挑战性的热门研究课题。随着GNSS连续运行站在全球范围内数量的不断增加及电离层层析算法的不断完善和发展,GNSS电离层监测必将在空间物理研究等领域发挥更加积极的作用。
4 GNSS空间环境学未来研究和展望 4.1 对流层建模展望在对流层建模方面,基于气象参数的对流层延迟模型与利用GNSS观测数据建立的对流层延迟模型相比,精度仍然存在着一定的差距,主要是在ZWD的计算方面精度不足。倘若能够继续提高利用实测气象参数计算ZWD的精度,使其接近于GNSS能够获取的精度,对于大范围、密集、高精度监测对流层或水汽具有重大的意义,能够节省大量的成本。另外,目前还未开展对不同对流层观测值的实时融合研究,利用廉价的气象观测设备来加密GNSS网从而对对流层实现更密集的监测,所以研究最优的融合算法,将不同精度、不同数据源的对流层观测值进行融合得到精度更优、水平分辨率更高的对流层模型产品具有重要的意义。
4.2 对流层水汽反演及应用展望基于GNSS对流层水汽反演已经较为成熟,但对于其在气象等方面的应用仍待研究。对于二维水汽信息进行降雨预报来讲,一方面可以对某区域多个测站的观测数据进行联合处理,以期得到更为准确、全面的预报结果;另一方面,大气水汽与温度息息相关,可以通过分析降雨前后水汽与温度的相关关系,建立一个更为合理和精确的多因子短临降雨预报模型。在全球范围内通过融合多源观测数据(地基和空基GNSS观测数据、无线电探空仪数据、COSMIC数据和ECMWF再分析资料等)对大尺度中长期的二维水汽信息进行分析和研究,探究全球水汽变化演变机理,识别重大气候灾害致灾因子,对中长尺度气候灾害事件进行监测和预报。在三维水汽产品方面,可将GNSS三维对流层产品与WRF模式数值同化,对WRF模式中数据同化系统模块进行改进,弥补地表常规资料和高空探测资料的不足,进一步提高WRF模式的预报能力。
此外,大量研究均已表明基于GNSS反演水汽的能力及优越性,如何进一步拓展GNSS水汽产品在气象学上的应用也是重点研究方向之一。
4.3 电离层监测和建模展望在精化全球电离层模型方面,多系统多源数据融合将成为下一步研究的重点。在建立电离层模型时,笔者认为应进一步考虑伽利略系统、北斗系统等多系统数据对建模的贡献,同时要考虑不同系统及不同频率间的组合定权问题。另外,电离层高阶项与磁场分布强度密切相关,而全球磁场的分布不一致,因此电离层高阶项对模型精度的影响也有待进一步的研究。电离层层析算法方面,基于1 Hz及50 Hz的高频、多系统GNSS数据进行高时间分辨率的电离层层析反演,进一步结合非相干散射雷达、测高仪及InSAR技术进行三维层析的优化,优化层析算法提高电离层层析模型的可靠性和精度,特别是提高层析模型空间分辨率和时间分辨率。在电离层应用研究方面,在现象提取、统计的基础上,应深入研究电离层异常触发、传播的物理机制。如地震电离层异常研究,可以结合破裂面分析、岩石圈-大气层-电离层的耦合机制进行综合研究,地震通过瑞利波、声重波、海啸波等对电离层产生作用,今后的研究中将结合此类观测数据对电离层异常进行相关分析,验证相关理论的准确性。
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